From Spirit Mediums to Incense Associations: Expression of Contemporary Salvationist Religions at the Mount Tai

Based on fieldwork around Mount Tai from 2023 to 2025, this study examines local incense associations and spirit mediums as contemporary folk religious participants. This study argues that the salvific functions of incense associations and spirit mediums closely resemble those of salvationist groups during the early period, and it has become an important way for contemporary individuals to deal with uncertainty under social change. Specifically, incense associations and spirit mediums inherit certain core ideas and practices, such as bodily techniques and human-divine communication, to help individuals cure diseases or solve difficulties in different aspects, while simultaneously adapting these traditions to contemporary social conditions. Through an analysis of their specific rituals, narratives, and life histories, this paper explores how incense associations and spirit mediums provide spiritual solace and social support to their adherents through ritual healing, community mutual aid, and other practices. Furthermore, by reconstructing ritual practices and historical narratives, these groups have reasserted the orthodoxy of their traditions and established their legitimacy in the modern context. 

Mount Tai is situated in the eastern region of Shandong Province, China. Renowned as one of the country’s most sacred mountains, it has served as a significant center for religious worship and pilgrimage for more than three millennia. Beginning with Édouard Émmannuel Chavannes’ comprehensive study of Mount Tai’s culture and history (Chavannes, 1910), subsequent researches have delved into its imperial sacrifices history (Zhou, 2013; 2022; Tang, 2003; 1987); folklore, incense associations and pilgrimage (Naquin, 2022; Nie, 2014; Jiang, 2011; Ye, 2006), and the formation and development of Mount Tai belief (Baker, 1925; Ye, 2009). However, despite extensive research on the history of this mountain, its contemporary religious practices have consistently been overlooked. In fact, Mount Tai continues to hold a significant, albeit varied, place in the hearts of diverse religious practitioners. Daoist priests, spirit mediums, incense associations, and other groups have maintained their ritual practices associated with the mountain which have never disappeared.

In addition to the widely discussion of shamanism and spirituality in differnet areas (Buyandelgeriyn, 2007; Kendall, 1988, 2009; Pedersen, 2011), there are many scholarly works have described the activities of Chinese spirit mediumship (Clart, 2003; Goossaert, 2022; Li, 2011). However, academic attention paid to the contemporary spirit mediums is still limited. This research focuses on the practice of spirit mediums and incense associations. The relationship between incense associations and spirit mediums is deeply intertwined, Incense associations around Mount Tai, which are often centered around the veneration of deities such as Bixia Yuanjun, frequently include spirit mediums as key figures within their structure. These mediums, believed to possess the ability to communicate with or be possessed by spiritual entities, play a dual role: they may serve as leaders within the incense associations or participate as ordinary members. In many cases, the leadership roles within these associations are hereditary, passed down through generations of spirit mediums who are regarded as having a special connection to the divine. In addition, some spirit mediums operate independently, conducting their practices outside the formal structure of these groups. These individuals often establish personal altars in their homes, where they perform rituals, offer sacrifices, and provide services such as healing, divination, and problem-solving for their clients.

This research argues that the practices of incense associations and spirit mediums continue the tradition of salvific religion, albeit with some modifications. Chinese salvationist religions have long been a subject of scholarly discussion (for example, see Duara, 2001; Goossaert, 2007; Palmer, 2011; Chen, 2017). However, most studies on mainland China have treated salvationist religions as a phenomenon unique to the Republican era and the early years of the People’s Republic. In fact, the religious activities carried out by spirit mediums and incense associations today still carry a strong salvific undertone. Whether through blessing rituals or specific spiritual healing practices, “doing good deeds (xinghao 行好)” and saving those in need  remain the guiding principles they claim to follow in their religious practices. This emphasis on salvation and assistance reflects the enduring core of their spiritual mission, demonstrating how their activities continue to be deeply rooted in the tradition of addressing the physical and spiritual well-being of individuals and communities. The experience of suffering forms a central narrative in their practices, as physical and psychological ailments largely serve as one of the important reasons that bring people together. These hardships, whether manifested as illnesses or emotional distress, create a shared foundation for individuals to seek solace and solutions through the collective and spiritual frameworks provided by spirit mediums and incense associations. This focus on alleviating suffering not only unites participants but also reinforces the salvific and healing dimensions of their religious activities. On the other hand, in order to avoid the risk of being accused of superstition under the new religious policy, they also began to actively consult and cooperate with officials and intellectuals (Xuan, 2025).

Therefore, we find that salvific religious activities have not disappeared. At Mount Tai—a place where religious discourse is continuously heritageized—the most vibrant religious practices still thrive. Mount Tai, as a sacred site, serves as a living testament to the persistence and adaptation of salvific religious traditions in contemporary society.