Pluralisms Without Freedom? Innovations in State-Managed Tolerance and Constraint in the Arabian Gulf

Religious pluralism in the Arabian Gulf is not simply permitted or restricted but actively shaped by state policies that regulate, accommodate, or brand religious diversity. This paper examines five models of state-managed religious pluralism: Saudi Arabia’s restrictive monoconfessionalism, Bahrain’s sectarian pluralism, Kuwait and Qatar’s pragmatic accommodation, the UAE’s branded tolerance, and Oman’s subtle inclusivity. While the UAE has pioneered religious tolerance as a diplomatic and economic tool, Qatar is cautiously adopting similar strategies. Saudi Arabia and Bahrain manage religious diversity through controlled sectarian governance, while Oman sustains a low-profile, historically embedded pluralism. These models suggest that innovation in religious governance doesn't necessarily lead to greater freedom but often reinforces state control. By comparing these models of pluralism, this paper argues for expanding research beyond high-profile interfaith diplomacy to examine whether less visible, embedded models such as Oman’s—whether innovative or not—may offer a more durable foundation for religious pluralism.