Atheism and Agnosticism in 21st-Century China: Results from a Six-Nation Study of Nontheistic Beliefs, Identities, and Moral Perspectives

This paper presents findings from a multi-methodological study of atheism and agnosticism (which we collectively label as nontheism) in contemporary China, conducted as part of a broader international research program exploring nontheistic beliefs, identities, and moral perspectives. The results reveal that, unlike the naturalistic, anti-religious atheism common in the West, Chinese nontheism is characterized by high engagement with supernatural beliefs and low levels of anti-religious sentiment. While Chinese nontheists associate atheism with political orthodoxy, they do not favor particular nonreligious labels. In terms of moral outlooks, Chinese nontheists are not markedly different from the Chinese general population, exhibiting both relativist and conventionalist perspectives. These findings provide insight into the cross-cultural and pluralistic dimensions of atheism and agnosticism as well as the nature of meaning, value, and belief in twenty-first-century China.