The Transformation of Dhikr in Modern Egypt: Reform, Agency, and Digital Mediation

The study of dhikr (remembrance of God) has long focused on its spiritual, cultural, and communal significance, portraying it as an essential Islamic practice rooted in the Qur’an and Hadith and a central component of Sufi devotion. However, this paper explores an often-overlooked dimension: how dhikr practices in modern Egypt have been transformed through reformist critiques, colonial narratives, and digital mediation.

Existing scholarship has primarily examined dhikr’s theological basis and mystical significance, but fewer studies have analyzed how modern religious reform and political discourse have shaped its perception and practice. This paper fills that gap by situating dhikr’s transformation within broader socio-political changes, using Talal Asad’s concept of agency (Asad 1993) and Kathryn Gin Lum’s framework of heathenization, which explains how practices deemed irrational or excessive are racialized and delegitimized (Gin Lum 2016).

Additionally, while past research has examined dhikr within Sufi institutions, this paper extends the discussion to contemporary debates on religious authority, particularly in digital spaces. The controversy surrounding Osama al-Azhari’s endorsement of dhikr on social media, which sparked criticism from Salafi scholars, highlights the continued contestation of Sufi practices and the growing role of digital mediation in shaping religious discourse. By examining these developments, this study provides a new perspective on how religious reform, state control, and digital engagement continue to redefine dhikr practices in modern Egypt.

This paper is structured into four key sections. The Historical Context and Reformist Critiques section traces how European colonialism and Islamic reform movements reshaped Egyptian religious discourse. Reformists like Muhammad ʿAbduh (1905) and Rashīd Riḍā (1922) sought to modernize Islam by advocating for rationalized religious practices, condemning dhikr as excessive and superstitious. These critiques aligned with colonial narratives that racialized and delegitimized indigenous religious customs, portraying them as obstacles to modernity (Gin Lum 2016). The marginalization of dhikr in modern Egypt section explores how state institutions and Salafi movements continued to suppress and regulate dhikr, reinforcing its marginalization as an irrational spectacle (Hamid al-Fiqi 1953). The Digital Mediation and Contemporary Controversies section examines recent debates on dhikr’s legitimacy in digital spaces, particularly through Osama al-Azhari’s public endorsement of a numerical repetition of the divine name. This debate reflects ongoing tensions over who has the authority to define legitimate Islamic practice in contemporary Egypt. And the last section, dhikr at the Intersection of tradition, reform, and digital Mediation reflects on how dhikr’s contested status illustrates broader struggles over religious authority, state control, and digital transformation. While dhikr remains a vital part of Egyptian religious life, its practice has been reshaped by reformist critiques, state interventions, and the influence of social media.

This study employs historical analysis, discourse analysis, and digital ethnography to trace the evolution of dhikr’s perception and practice in modern Egypt. Using archival materials, religious fatwas, and contemporary media sources, it examines the continuities and transformations in discourse surrounding dhikr. Additionally, the study draws on online religious debates, analyzing how social media platforms have become new arenas of religious authority and contestation.

By integrating insights from Talal Asad’s concept of agency, the study challenges assumptions that modernization leads to the erosion of Sufi practices. Instead, it argues that Sufi orders have displayed remarkable adaptability, negotiating between state control, reformist critiques, and new digital landscapes.

This research makes several key contributions. It links reformist critiques to colonial narratives to demonstrate that reformist critiques of dhikr were not merely theological but were deeply tied to colonial discourses that sought to discipline and racialize indigenous religious practices (Gin Lum 2016). By aligning their critiques with Western notions of rationality and progress, reformists reinforced hierarchies that positioned traditional Sufi practices as irrational and regressive. It Highlights Sufi agency in negotiating modernity. The study challenges the decline thesis, which suggests that Sufism was gradually marginalized in modern Egypt. Instead, it argues that Sufi orders demonstrated agency by adapting dhikr practices to align with societal expectations while preserving their spiritual significance. Additionally, it reveals the Role of Digital Mediation in Contemporary Religious Debates. This paper extends existing scholarship by examining how dhikr is contested and reshaped in digital spaces. The controversy surrounding Osama al-Azhari’s defense of dhikr on Facebook, which provoked criticism from Salafi scholars, highlights how religious authority is increasingly debated online (Al Jazeera 2021). The study argues that social media serves as both a democratizing force and a new space for religious policing, where Sufi rituals continue to be scrutinized and challenged.

The transformation of dhikr practices in modern Egypt reflects broader tensions between tradition, reform, and state control. While dhikr has been subjected to reformist critiques and state regulations, Sufi orders have demonstrated resilience by adapting their practices to shifting socio-political landscapes.

The controversy surrounding Osama al-Azhari’s endorsement of dhikr in digital spaces reveals that these debates remain ongoing, as new technologies reshape how religious authority is constructed and contested. As social media becomes an increasingly powerful tool for religious engagement, dhikr continues to be debated, not only by state institutions and religious scholars but also by ordinary Muslims navigating their spiritual identities in an evolving digital age.

This study fills a critical gap in the scholarship on dhikr by exploring how its transformation is shaped by modernity, religious reform, and digital mediation. It underscores that dhikr’s contested status is not merely a historical phenomenon but an evolving discourse that reflects deeper struggles over religious authenticity, national identity, and global modernity.

References 

• Asad, Talal. 1993. Genealogies of Religion: Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christianity and Islam. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Gin Lum, Kathryn. 2016. Damned Nation: Hell in America from the Revolution to Reconstruction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Hamid al-Fiqi, Muhammad. 1953. Ḥukm al-Tawassul wal-Istighātha. Cairo: Maktabat al-Sunnah.
• Qutb, Sayyid. 1964. Maʿālim fī al-Ṭarīq. Cairo: Dār al-Shurūq.
• Riḍā, Rashīd. 1922. Tafsīr al-Manār. Cairo: al-Maktabah al-Salafiyyah.
• Al Jazeera. 2021. "Egypt's Controversy Over Permission for Dhikr." March 03, 2025. https://www.aljazeera.net/politics/2021/6/10/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B0%D…
• Talal Asad. 1993. Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity. Stanford: Stanford University Press.