Motherhood in Islamic traditions extends beyond biological reproduction, encompassing symbolic, communal, and theological dimensions. While conventional definitions of motherhood emphasize biological ties and caregiving, Islamic narratives offer alternative constructions that disrupt these norms. This paper examines how the Prophet’s wives, designated as ummahat al-mu’minin (Mothers of the Believers), and his daughter, Fatima, as Umm Abiha (Mother of Her Father), embody maternal roles that transcend traditional expectations.
The designation ummahat al-mu’minin did not grant the Prophet’s wives maternal authority in a conventional sense. While none except Khadija were biological mothers, their symbolic motherhood extended to communal leadership, political intervention, and theological instruction. Among them, Zainab bint Jahsh and Umm Salama stand out as examples of maternal figures who actively shaped social reform.
Zainab bint Jahsh’s marriage to Zayd ibn Haritha and later to the Prophet himself was divinely decreed and positioned her at the center of a radical Qur’anic intervention against class discrimination. Her marriage to Zayd, a freed slave and the Prophet’s adopted son, challenged pre-Islamic notions of tribal superiority. The Qur’an (33:36-40) establishes that this marriage was not merely a personal union but a divinely sanctioned demonstration of social equity. However, when Zaynab and Zayd’s marriage ended in divorce, the Prophet’s subsequent marriage to her further dismantled deeply entrenched Arab customs—particularly the perception of adopted sons as equivalent to biological sons. This reform, though theologically significant, subjected Zainab to scrutiny and social backlash. Yet, she embraced her role in the reformative mission, transforming her suffering into a lesson in submission to divine decree. Her participation in this episode places her in a unique category of non-normative motherhood—one that nurtures societal change rather than biological offspring.
Similarly, Umm Salama emerges as a maternal figure of resilience and advocacy. A prominent narrator of hadith, she played a critical role in the transmission of prophetic traditions and was known for her wisdom in political affairs. Her most striking act of social activism came in defense of Fatima’s claim to Fadak. When Fatima delivered her Khutbat Fadakiyya in the Prophet’s Mosque, challenging the caliph’s confiscation of her inheritance, Umm Salama publicly supported her cause. She invoked Qur’anic principles to emphasize Fatima’s legal and theological entitlement, only to be dismissed by the caliphal authority. Consequently, she was denied her stipend for that year. This act of defiance exemplifies a form of motherhood rooted in justice—one that protects and defends the vulnerable even at great personal cost.
Umm Salama’s contributions extended beyond political advocacy. In Shi’i traditions, she is revered as the custodian of prophetic heirlooms, including texts and relics passed down through Ali’s descendants. This role, recognized in sources such as Bihar al-Anwar, underscores her function as a guardian of religious authority, embedding her in the theological lineage of the Imams. Moreover, her role in the Karbala narrative, particularly her witnessing of the Prophet’s vision foretelling Hussain’s martyrdom, further cements her position as a mother of resistance. These aspects highlight how the Prophet’s wives, through their actions and legacy, exemplified maternal leadership that shaped both communal ethics and religious identity.
Fatima’s title Umm Abiha offers another powerful example of non-normative mothering. While traditionally interpreted as an endearment, this designation carries deeper theological implications. The Prophet’s exceptional reverence for Fatima—rising when she entered, kissing her hands, and declaring, “Fatima is mother of her father”—was not merely paternal affection but a public affirmation of her sacred status. In a society that devalued daughters, such gestures were profoundly countercultural.
More significantly, Fatima’s role in the continuation of the Prophet’s lineage disrupted patriarchal inheritance norms. In pre-Islamic Arabia, ancestry was traced through male heirs, yet the Prophet declared Fatima’s children as his own descendants. This assertion, which positioned her as the mother of the prophetic lineage, was met with resistance from later political authorities. Abbasid Caliph Harun challenged Imam al-Kazim’s claim to be a descendant of the Prophet, arguing that lineage could only be traced through male offspring. In response, Imam al-Kazim cited Qur’anic references to Jesus as a descendant of Abraham despite having no biological father, thereby reinforcing that Fatima’s children rightfully carried the Prophet’s lineage. This argument was not merely genealogical but carried profound theological weight, legitimizing the authority of the Imams through their maternal connection to the Prophet.
Beyond lineage, Fatima’s motherhood was defined by theological and political activism. Her Khutbat Fadakiyya, delivered in response to the confiscation of her inheritance, is one of the earliest examples of a Muslim woman publicly engaging in religious and legal discourse. Drawing on Qur’anic verses, she dismantled the caliph’s claim that prophets leave no inheritance, positioning herself as an authoritative exegete and defender of divine justice. Her defiance, though ultimately unsuccessful in reclaiming Fadak, established a precedent for women as active participants in theological and political struggles. She she nurtured a legacy of resistance, theological authority, and prophetic continuity. In this sense, her title represents a radical reimagining of what it means to be a mother—one who births a tradition rather than just offspring.
In conclusion, the narratives of the Prophet’s wives and Fatima offer alternatives to normative motherhood. Figures like Zainab bint Jahsh and Umm Salama embodied maternal leadership through advocacy, social reform, and political defiance. Their motherhood was one of communal transformation, challenging social injustices and preserving prophetic teachings. Fatima’s role as Umm Abiha further subverts conventional paradigms. She redefined lineage, challenged patriarchal inheritance laws, and established a model of theological motherhood that extended beyond biological reproduction. Her resistance against political authority, combined with her elevation in prophetic discourse, cements her as a mother not only of children but of an entire intellectual and spiritual tradition. By examining these narratives, this paper highlights motherhood as a dynamic, multidimensional role—one that encompasses activism, leadership, and theological authority. These women did not simply conform to traditional maternal expectations; they expanded them, offering models of resilience, reform, and resistance that continue to inspire contemporary discussions on gender, authority, and social justice in Islam.
This paper examines alternative constructions of motherhood in Islamic traditions, focusing on the Prophet’s wives as “Mothers of the Believers” (ummahat al-mu’minin) and his daughter, Fatima, as “Mother of Her Father” (Umm Abiha). The Qur’an (33:6) grants the Prophet’s wives the title ummahat al-mu’minin, traditionally viewed as a juridical category restricting their remarriage. Though only Khadija was a biological mother of his children, their symbolic maternal status positioned them as key figures in shaping Islamic discourses on social reform and activism. Figures like Zainab bint Jahsh and Umm Salama played active roles in the prophetic mission, demonstrating maternal leadership in transforming social and communal norms. Fatima’s title Umm Abiha, often seen as an endearment, marks a radical redefinition of the prevalent paradigms of lineage and legacy. This paper argues that these women embody motherhood as resilience, reform, and activism, offering alternative maternal paradigms that extend beyond the normative.