Eastern Orthodox Christianity’s emphasis on tradition makes it a compelling religious community for individuals experiencing perceived social marginalization in contemporary American society. It is, ironically, Orthodoxy’s lack of “American-ness” which makes it so attractive to these Americans. Ostensibly disconnected from the cultural and political baggage of the society with which they have become disillusioned, Orthodoxy appears to them to be a pure, uncorrupted repository of the traditional values that they have lost– particularly those related to gender roles, sexual ethics, and Christian nationalism. A conversion to Orthodoxy, therefore, represents Christian neo-traditionalism par excellence, cleansing the sins of the present with the unblemished sacrificial lamb of the past.
Many Orthodox clergy look favorably upon this trend, seeing American neo-traditionalism either as morally consistent with an Orthodox way of life, or as an opportunity to expand Orthodoxy’s influence in American culture. Consequently, English-language Orthodox catechetical literature has adapted to secure and retain as much of this population as possible. Orthodox catechesis has not, however, adapted to consider the psychological vulnerability and volatility of those undergoing conversion, especially as a means of refuge from perceived social harm. Rather than tending to their emotional wounds, certain pedagogical practices commonly utilized in Orthodox catechesis continually reinforce them. Drawing on Victor Turner’s theory of liminality in the conversion process (Turner, 1969), I contend that this results in a dysfunctional relationship with their new religious identity, characterized by rigorous and idiosyncratic expressions of Orthodox practice.
The psychological conditions associated with the development of radicalism among religious converts has been widely studied, though largely in a European Islamic context (see Turner, 2019; Bartoszewicz, 2013; Galonnier, 2022, etc.). Recent efforts have brought attention to this issue among Orthodox Christian converts in the United States, especially among young men (see Riccardi-Swartz, 2022; Džalto and Demacopoulos, 2022; Slagle, 2011, etc.). Drawing on the insights of this previous research, in this paper I will focus on the role of catechetical pedagogy in cultivating the psychological conditions conducive to the development of religious radicalism among Orthodox Christian converts. I will characterize these methods– which rely upon 1) power imbalance, 2) identity fragmentation, 3) social isolation, and 4) cultural hegemony– as pedagogically “violent” using Galtung’s theory of violence as consisting of direct, structural, and cultural dimensions. Given the disproportionate representation of gender dynamics and sexual ethics in the content of this pedagogy, special attention will be given to the ways that gender is constructed and violently enforced in neo-traditionalist Orthodox practice.
My interpretation of the mechanisms through which violent pedagogy operates is greatly informed by the pedagogical insights of Paulo Freire in The Pedagogy of the Oppressed and bell hooks in Teaching to Transgress. By situating my analysis within the broader field of critical pedagogy, I hope to demonstrate that this model of education is not unique or inherent to an Orthodox context; rather, it is a pervasive orientation toward education that can be found in a variety of settings to create a power differential between the ruling and subordinate class by exploiting fear of an imagined threat. With this in mind, I will briefly discuss the role of Russian imperialism in the radicalization of American converts to the Orthodox Churches, adding clarity to the political dimension of neo-traditionalist Orthodox practice. This serves as a helpful reminder that religious radicalization is not a deterministic pathology that one “catches” like a disease, but is a psychological and spiritual survival response to perceived harm to one’s material reality.
I will conclude by exploring a non-violent orientation toward Orthodox catechesis rooted in critical pedagogy. Understanding hegemony to be inherently violent, non-violent pedagogy must recognize where power imbalances exist and dismantle systems of control built upon the weaponization of self-hatred, alienation, and identity instability. In service of this exploration, I will offer an understanding of Orthodox “tradition” as a mystical and paradoxical process of co-creation between past and present, individual and community, and self and Other. I will contrast this with a neo-traditionalist understanding of tradition, which cannot coexist with a non-violent pedagogical modality. Rather than either ignoring or alienating those converts who are drawn to Orthodoxy as a mechanism for enacting neo-traditionalist ideology, my goal is to develop a catechesis capable of meeting their complex psychological and spiritual needs, prioritizing their long-term wellbeing.
The trend of neo-traditionalism among converts to Eastern Orthodox Churches in the United States is a well-researched phenomenon that can be observed in idiosyncratic expressions of Orthodoxy unique to a North American context. In this paper, I will highlight pedagogical methods used in Orthodox catechesis which may contribute to these behaviors and ideologies. I will characterize these methods–which rely upon power imbalance, identity fragmentation, social isolation, and cultural hegemony–as pedagogically “violent” using Galtung’s theory of violence as consisting of direct, structural, and cultural dimensions. My analysis of the psychological impact of violent pedagogy draws primarily from Victor Turner’s theory of liminality in conversion, aided by the pedagogical insights of Paulo Freire and bell hooks. I will conclude by suggesting principles of non-violent pedagogy for Orthodox catechesis which may serve to create distance between Orthodox tradition and American neo-traditionalism, and to meet the pastoral needs of individuals drawn to neo-traditionalist ideology.