Reinterpreted Victorian Womanhood: Freedom, Constraints, and Faith of Korean Protestant Women

This study explores the reinterpretation of Victorian womanhood in the context of Korean Christianity, focusing on the theological and social constructions of gendered agency. While Victorian ideals of femininity—centered on purity, domesticity, and moral responsibility—were originally introduced to Korea by Western missionaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, these ideals have undergone significant transformation within Korean Christian discourse. Contrary to the traditional feminist critique that Victorian womanhood necessarily enforces subordination and male dominance, this paper argues that within Korean Christianity, the notion of the "good wife, good mother" has evolved into a source of spiritual authority and agency for women. By analyzing the case of Duranno Eomeoni Hakgyo (Mother School), this paper examines how Korean Christian women have navigated and redefined Victorian gender ideals in ways that depart from Western feminist paradigms.

The introduction establishes the historical context of Victorian womanhood in Korea, tracing its origins to the influence of Western women missionaries and the gendered pedagogies they introduced. It highlights the intersection of Victorian femininity with Confucian patriarchal structures, illustrating how these cultural and religious forces reinforced the role of women as self-sacrificing nurturers within the private sphere. This paper then engages with feminist critiques of this model, particularly those of scholars like Kwok Pui Lan and Nami Kim, who argue that such ideals have historically functioned to reinforce women's subjugation.

Nevertheless, this study challenges the prevailing narrative that Victorian womanhood in the Korean church solely perpetuates patriarchal oppression. It contends that Korean Christian women, rather than passively accepting male-dominated hierarchies, have carved out spaces of leadership and influence through their numerical majority and spiritual authority. This paper underscores the paradoxical dynamic wherein women, despite lacking institutional power, have played a crucial role in shaping the theological and communal life of the church. Through a historical and ethnographic lens, it examines the ways in which Korean Christian women have asserted agency not by rejecting traditional roles but by infusing them with religious significance and moral leadership.

The case of Duranno Eomeoni Hakgyo (Duranno Mother School) serves as a focal point for this investigation. Established in 1999, the Mother School seeks to reinforce biblical womanhood, emphasizing the roles of wives and mothers as foundational to family and societal stability. While on the surface, this program appears to reinforce conventional gender norms, a closer examination reveals that it simultaneously elevates women’s status through spiritual leadership. The program’s curriculum, which includes teachings on prayer, motherhood, and spousal relationships, reinterprets the Victorian "good wife, good mother" ideal as an active and transformative role. Rather than merely serving as passive supporters of male authority, women within this program are positioned as the spiritual anchors of their families and communities.

This paper further explores how Korean Christian women’s numerical majority has shaped the gender dynamics of the church. Citing Dana Robert’s research on the global Christian demographic shift, the paper illustrates how women constitute the majority of congregants and active participants in Korean churches. Despite being excluded from formal clergy positions, women exercise significant influence through their involvement in church ministries, intercessory prayer, and mission work. This study argues that their numerical dominance enables them to cultivate alternative forms of leadership that are not predicated on hierarchical authority but on communal and spiritual influence.

Additionally, the concept of spiritual authority is examined as a key mechanism through which Korean Christian women negotiate their agency. Drawing on the work of Sung-Deuk Oak and Timothy Kim, the paper investigates how prayer movements—such as dawn prayer meetings and prayer mountain retreats—have historically provided women with avenues for leadership. These practices, deeply embedded in Korean revivalist traditions, allow women to claim authority through religious devotion rather than institutional power. The study highlights that within the Korean Christian framework, spiritual authority is often more influential than ecclesiastical titles, enabling women to lead in ways that subvert conventional patriarchal structures.

A critical component of this study is its engagement with feminist theology in the Global South. Gina Zurlo’s argument that non-Western feminisms emerge from unique socio-religious contexts is particularly relevant to understanding Korean Christian women’s pursuit of agency. Unlike Western feminist movements that often emphasize institutional equality and social mobility, Korean Christian women’s leadership is rooted in theological and spiritual legitimacy. This paper posits that rather than opposing the Victorian ideal of womanhood, Korean Christian women have redefined it in a way that aligns with their cultural and religious identities.

Finally, this paper considers the broader implications of its findings for feminist theological discourse and the study of World Christianity. It challenges the assumption that feminist agency must always take the form of visible institutional power and instead calls for a more nuanced understanding of gendered leadership in religious contexts. By examining how Korean Christian women have strategically engaged with inherited gender ideologies, this study contributes to a growing body of scholarship that recognizes diverse expressions of female agency beyond the Western feminist framework.

In conclusion, this paper argues that Victorian womanhood in the Korean church has not simply functioned as an instrument of subjugation but has been reinterpreted as a vehicle for spiritual authority and leadership. The Duranno Eomeoni Hakgyo exemplifies how Korean Christian women navigate traditional gender expectations while asserting their influence through prayer, community organization, and moral leadership. This study thus repositions the discussion of Victorian femininity in Korean Christianity from one of passive submission to one of active theological and social engagement. Through this reexamination, it contributes to the broader discourse on gender, religion, and agency in non-Western Christian traditions, advocating for a more contextually informed approach to feminist theology in World Christianity.