This panel brings together scholars from a wide range of regional and methodological specializations to analyze the manifestation and mediation of divine agency in modern Hinduism. The concept of divine agency is common in many forms of Hindu religious thought and practice, often expressed in concepts such as ichha (will) and lila (play) – with human agents often being described as nimitta (vehicles) of the deity’s will. The papers in this panel explore how, in modern and contemporary Hinduism, this conceptual framework of divine agency has created the conditions for making claims and justifying actions in the name of non-human actors, in distinct legal and ritual spaces. Bringing together legal scholarship and ethnographic research, this panel reorients focus on divine agency as a critical site of mediation in modern Hinduism, with wide-ranging, and largely unexplored, consequences with regards to claims over space, property, and identity.
Colonial courts have treated Hindu deities as legal persons since the mid-nineteenth century: the deity was seen as a non-human beneficiary of its wealth, and human caretakers could act as its agents to make decisions on its behalf and exercise its “divine will.” Until the mid 1900s, the deity was represented by shebaits and caretakers whose proximity to the deity was sanctioned by the scriptures. However, as corruption allegations against shebaits became commonplace, courts allowed the deity to be represented by any worshipper, termed the “disinterested next friend,” who could appear in Court claiming to represent the deity’s will. This paper examines the increasing importance of the “next friend” in temple property disputes. Drawing on case laws and secondary scholarship on Anglo-Hindu Law, I show how the birth and evolution of this category of “next friend” was a political maneuver, which found resonance in neither English law nor Hindu scriptures.
Village deities in the Western Himalaya agentively participate in the everyday lives of their devotees. A primary form in which they do so is through their raths—portable wooden palanquins carried on the shoulders of male devotees. The raths are understood to embody the deities and manifest their will, which, devotees report, is communicated through the palanquins’ autonomous movement, to which the carriers’ bodies respond. In this paper, I explore the embodied socialization process through which male community members are trained and gradually integrated into this ritual performance. Drawing on scholarship on material religion and on two decades of ethnographic research in the region, I illustrate how this process unfolds in gradual stages—from early childhood games to full adult performative integration—during which practitioners learn to transform their bodies from active producers of choreographed movement to responsive conduits of what is experienced as divine agency.
Drummer-priests called pampaikkārar mediate divine presence across diverse vernacular Hindu ritual performances in Tamil-speaking South India. Through expressive and aesthetic practices (i.e., lyrical and material alaṅkāram), they invite deities and ancestors to take up residence in oil lamps and the bodies of human hosts. Central to the drummers’ divine mediation is their musical and ritual virtuosity and their aesthetic artistry. Ritual participants who embody and give voice to the divine must also evince certain qualities and characteristics. Drawing on long-term fieldwork, this paper centers divine agency as the crucial factor in whether the deities and the dead will manifest and speak, if the ritual will proceed, and whether it will meet its goals. Entreaties and offerings from participating devotees and the musicians’ percussive skill and creative ritual interventions notwithstanding, it is a matter of divine will whether these entities respond to the exertions of their human mediators.
In the suburb of RC Puram, Hyderabad city, the “non-existent” village of Mandumoola is reconstituted through the annual Mallanna jatara. Organized by the Kuruma caste association of displaced Kuruma caste members, the festival serves as a space for nostalgic recuperation of an ancestral lifeworld lost to state land acquisition and physical displacement. This paper analyzes a pivotal ritual innovation of the annual festival: a Poturaju (guardian-deity) sheep sacrifice performed at a sacred space disputed between the members of Kuruma and the Vaddera castes. I argue that the “possessed” body of the Ogguvandlu ritual specialist functions as a ritual arbiter, mediating and representing a “divine will” to resolve claims over sacrality and space. By situating this agency within broader caste-informed notions of the nature of the divine and local representative politics, I demonstrate how claims of representing and enacting “divine will” enable the Kurumas to claim disputed space through ritual action.
Is spirit possession a form of darśan? Does multisensory embodiment intensify the idea of contact inherent in darśan? Does it collapse the distance between the seer and the seen and the distinction between seeing and becoming? In this paper, I draw on fieldwork among Indo-Caribbean Madrasi healers in Guyana and New York to 1) situate spirit possession within the field of Hindu visuality and 2) propose a multisensory theory of darśan. The Madrasis are a religious minority within the Indo-Caribbean diaspora. They cohere around south Indian ancestral deities and practice spirit possession, drumming, and healing rituals. Smoke, drums, neem, and water allow Madrasi healers to “see through the eyes” of the deity. Possession is mediated through the senses. The Madrasis’ multisensory rituals of possession urge us to review and revise ocularcentric interpretations of Hindu ways of perceiving the world (pratyakṣa), entering bodies (āveśa), and seeing and being seen (darśan).