Text and Image Across Media and Languages: A Case Study of Tangut, Chinese, and Uyghur Illuminated Sutras and Inscriptions

The early 20th century saw two major discoveries of Buddhist manuscripts and woodblock prints that have proven crucial for understanding Buddhist practices in Eastern Central Asia during the middle period. The first, the “library cave” at the Mogao Buddhist complex in Dunhuang (Gansu province, China) contained thousands of manuscripts in languages such as Chinese, Tibetan, Sogdian, and others, dating to the period from the 4th to 11th century. The second, lesser-known but equally important, is a collection of predominantly Tangut woodblock prints from the 11th and 12th centuries found in Khara-khoto, Inner Mongolia. Together, these discoveries provide significant insights into Buddhist religious practices during the late middle period.

This paper focuses on the various editions of the 25th chapter of the Lotus Sutra, known as the Avalokiteśvara-sūtra, that were discovered in Dunhuang, Khara-khoto, and Turfan. The sutra offers practical instructions for devotees facing challenging situations such as imprisonment, natural disasters, or travelling. Its accessibility and emphasis on protection by bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara contributed to its widespread popularity during the late Tang and Giyijun Period (8th–10th centuries) in Dunhuang and the Tangut Xia kingdom (1038–1227).  

A particularly fascinating aspect of several Avalokiteśvara-sūtra editions is a string of images that runs above the main text. These images are not merely decorative but closely correlate with the scriptural content, enhancing its spiritual and practical message. The versions from Dunhuang, Khara-khoto, and Turfan, exhibit striking similarities in their visual styles and iconography, despite originating from distinct cultural contexts and periods. The consistency of visual elements across these manuscripts and woodblock prints suggests the presence of a shared pictorial tradition in Eastern Central Asia.

This integration of text and image reflects a broader phenomenon in Buddhist practices, where visual culture was not simply supplementary but actively participated in the transmission of religious teachings. The visual elements guided practitioners in their engagement with the sutra’s themes, helping them connect with the text on a deeper spiritual level. In this way, images functioned as both instructional tools and spiritual aids. Furthermore, the illuminated editions of the Avalokiteśvara-sūtra offer valuable insights into the connection between Buddhist art and ritual. The act of reading and reciting the sutra in this context was not just an intellectual exercise but an embodied practice. The images acted as visual prompts, helping practitioners focus their minds and spirits on the text’s teachings. 

 This research also extends its focus to the relationship between text and image in the remaining Tangut pilgrim inscriptions found on the walls of Mogao and Yulin caves. These inscriptions not only serve as written testimonials but also engage with the imagery around them, offering insights into the significance of both the textual and pictorial representations. For example, a Tangut pilgrimage inscription in Mogao Cave 285 records that, on the 23rd day of the ninth month in the year 1116, a group of eight Tangut pilgrims—both men and women—came to the Mogao caves to express their sincere devotion to the Buddhist faith and to pray for the salvation of all sentient beings. They entered the cave and approached the small niche on the northern wall, closest to the main altar. The pilgrims then performed the necessary rituals, burned incense, and one of them wrote an inscription on the back wall of the niche, along with a schematic image depicting four praying figures in front of a stupa. The three-quarter view of the image shows a group of four devotees, hands pressed together, holding offerings and incense burners. They are dressed in long robes and officials’ tailed hats. The figures appear to lean slightly toward the stupa, symbolizing their humble devotion. The devotees face a 10-tier stupa, depicted in the form of a pyramid. The stupa may not represent a real architectural structure but rather a visual embodiment of the Buddha. Therefore, by presenting their offerings and directing their supplications to the stupa, the pilgrims indirectly address their prayers to the Buddha.The association between text and image helped deepen the understanding of Buddhist teachings, making the spiritual message more accessible to practitioners and visitors of the caves. 

By linking the analysis of Tangut inscriptions from the Mogao caves to the study of the Avalokiteśvara-sūtra manuscripts from Dunhuang, Khara-khoto, and Turfan, this research aims to uncover the ways in which Buddhist texts and visual representations were interconnected, influencing each other across different cultural settings. Furthermore, it offers new perspectives on how visual and textual traditions were interwoven across Eastern Central Asia. The connection between these diverse manuscripts, woodblock prints, and inscription traditions illuminates how text and image were not isolated forms of expression but worked together to communicate Buddhist teaching and rituals. The study focuses on previously understudied materials, connecting multilingual textual traditions and visual practices from various regions. Furthermore, it makes valuable contributions to the broader field of Buddhist studies, shedding light on how art, text, and ritual were intertwined in the transmission and practice of Buddhism.