Shaping Numinous Space: The Adoption of Buddhist Burials in the Tang Dynasty

Why were the deceased interred in Buddhist manners—whether in mountain caves, beneath brick stupas, or in underground tombs intentionally situated near sacred Buddhist sites such as cave complexes or renowned monasteries in the mountains at Longmen in Luoyang? Epigraphic sources from the Luoyang area suggest that by the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), these Buddhist burial practices had become widely accepted. 

Moreover, with the increasing number of  Buddhist burial sites—including burial caves and stupas—uncovered in recent archaeological excavations, scholars now have the opportunity to reconstruct the original contexts of these sites and their associated rituals. By integrating cutting-edge technologies with a comprehensive analysis of textual, epigraphic and archaeological materials, we can further investigate the Buddhist teachings embraced by local practitioners. However, the process of adopting Buddhist funerary practices was not without challenges: Tensions and contradictions arose in reconciling Buddhist conceptions of death and the disposition of the body with traditional Chinese values. Thus, it is crucial to examine the role of practitioners of Buddhist burials in promoting and adapting these innovative funerary customs, as well as the strategies they employed to negotiate and reconcile Buddhist ideas with traditional Chinese values. I will approach this study from three perspectives: 

Part 1: Archaeological Evidence and Digital Reconstruction

I will examine archaeological evidence from two Buddhist burial sites in the Longmen area and digitally restore their original conditions: the WFG K1 (LGRA, 2021) burial cave complex on East Hill and a group of burial stupas on West Hill (Luoyang Museum, 2020). 

The WFG-K1 site comprises a burial cave and affiliated structures, including a niche for a stone-carved sutra, two platforms for pillar-beam structures, and numerous stone architectural components. Based on site evidence, I reconstruct the site’s building process, from cave excavation and platform leveling to upper-space extension and the eventual establishment of an enclosed space. The complexity of the site suggests it functioned not only as a burial site but also as a ritual space for ceremonies before and after the burial and subsequent memorial services. 

Additionally, six burial stupas were discovered on the northern slope of West Hill, each containing the bones and ashes of Buddhists buried beneath it. These stupas were housed in an enclosed courtyard, featuring an entrance that resembled the architectural layout of a conventional cemetery with underground tombs. By referring to published archaeological reports and drawing from previous on-site investigations, I can digitally reconstruct the original layout of these burial stupas and examine their relationship with nearby monasteries (e.g., Guanghua and Baoying Monasteries) during the Tang. 

Part 2: Historical and Religious Context of Buddhist Burials

In this section, I examine the development of historical and religious contexts regarding cave and stupa burial in the Tang. In early Buddhist tradition, stupas were originally constructed to enshrine the relics of the Buddha and later became sites for interring the remains of eminent monks. By the Tang dynasty, this conventional Buddhist funerary practice was adopted by a broader range of practitioners, including Buddhist nuns and laywomen. The widespread acceptance of stupa burial is evidenced by numerous stupa inscriptions and epitaphs recording these interments. Many of these female Buddhists express a strong desire to be buried in following this Buddhist custom, reflecting their religious aspirations at the time of their passing. Their choices offer valuable insight into the broader social paradigm shifts and prevailing Buddhist ideas that shaped the wide acceptance of stupa burial beyond eminent monks. 

Further evidence related to Buddhist influence on death and the body emerges from the practice of cave burial. This practice was closely associated with shituo (Skt. śītavana), an Indian-origin funerary practice that advocated abandoning corpses in the wild to feed animals. Buddhist scriptures and historical records, particularly hagiographies of eminent monks (i.e., Gaoseng zhuan and Xu gaoseng zhuan), provide valuable insights into their adoption of cave burial, which is similar to forest-exposure burials but involves placing the body in the cave to feed birds and beasts. However, the cave burials found at Longmen represent a distinct variation, demonstrating a significant shift from the original intent of self-sacrifice outlined in Buddhist scriptures. For instance, several biographies of eminent monks suggest that early burial caves were not intended to be sealed. Yet, rather than exposing bodies to the open environment, the burial caves at Longmen were deliberately sealed after the bodies were placed inside, marking a clear deviation from the early tradition of exposure burials and raising investigations into the role of practitioners in mediating and negotiating discrepancies between Buddhist doctrines and actual funerary practices.

Part 3: Practitioners

There are two main approaches employed by practitioners of Buddhist burials that can be identified through their words in epigraphic sources and the archaeological evidence of their projects. These approaches reveal how Buddhist burials were implemented in response to questions and opposition from local communities. 

1) Aligning with Traditional Funerary Customs: Practitioners invited elements that resonated with traditional funerary settings. This included sealing burial chambers with stone doors to resemble underground tombs, selecting burial stupa locations overlooking family cemeteries, and creating spaces for the living to honour their deceased loved ones. Through these efforts, they transformed mourning into an act of merit-making and filial piety, reinforcing both Buddhist principles and prevailing social values. 

2) Incorporating Indigenous Religious Influences: By integrating Daoist attitudes toward the body, practitioners redefined the burial site as a numinous space that transcended both physical and spiritual boundaries: it preserved bodies to prevent their decay while simultaneously ensuring the liberation from suffering in this life and securing a favourable rebirth. 

Work Cited: 

Longmen Grottoes Research Academy (LGRA) 龍門石窟研究院. 2021. Longmen shiku kaogu baogo: dongshan wanfogou qu龍門石窟考古報告：東山萬佛溝區. Beijing: Kexue chubanshe.

Luoyang  Museum and The Institute of Archaeology of Luoyang. 2020. “Luoyang Longmen xishan beipo senglü muqun fajue jianbao 洛陽龍門西山北坡僧侶墓群發掘簡報”, in Wenbo, no.3: 20–25.