This study primarily seeks to analyze archaeological findings to examine the discrepancies between the theoretical framework of fengshui principles and their practical application in burial practices during the Northern Song dynasty. Subsequently, by incorporating written records left by practitioners, this paper aims to elucidate some potential reasons behind these divergences.
I argue that fengshui constitutes a comprehensive theoretical system encompassing three distinct levels: the overarching "background theory"; the "normative guidelines" derived from these philosophical theories concerning cosmic and terrestrial order, which serve as directives for practical action; and the "actual cases" shaped by the application of these principles. The majority of extant fengshui texts pertain to the second level, with the Dili Xinshu (地理新書, New Book on Geography) from the Northern Song period serving as a representative example. Since the 1980s, scholars have increasingly turned their attention to the role of fengshui in Song dynasty burial practices, employing its principles to interpret the spatial organization of graves at archaeological sites. Among these studies, Su Bai's analysis of the Song-dynasty graves at Baisha stands as one of the earliest and most influential contributions. At first glance, scholarly research appears to have successfully bridged the second and third levels of the fengshui theoretical framework. However, upon closer examination, significant discrepancies become evident.
Previous studies that emphasize archaeological evidence have predominantly attempted to explain burial practices through the lens of fengshui theory. In reality, however, very few graves strictly adhere to these normative guidelines. Despite this, there has been limited scholarly discussion on the reasons for such deviations. By analyzing archaeological sites from a specific region and time period, this study explores two core questions: What were the motivations for violating normative guidelines? And within a given historical and spatial context, were such deviations commonplace?
The case study selected for this research is the Chao family in Chan County 澶州 during the Northern Song period. The Chao family exerted considerable political and cultural influence throughout the dynasty, producing notable figures such as Chao Jiong (晁迥, 951–1034), Chao Zongke (晁宗愨, 985–1042), and Chao Buzhi (晁补之, 1053–1110). These individuals contributed to the family’s sustained prosperity, enabling the continual maintenance and expansion of their ancestral burial grounds. As a result, multiple family cemeteries emerged, primarily distributed across present-day Jining in Shandong and Puyang in Henan. Many members of the Chao family were influential literati who left behind extensive written records, providing invaluable sources for understanding their customs and motivations.
This study is divided into three sections. First, I will examine the burial grounds of the Chao family, using archaeological evidence to illustrate how they applied fengshui principles in cemetery planning. I will argue that the widespread adoption of fengshui theory during the Northern Song period was closely linked to its practical utility in facilitating multi-generational, long-term, and large-scale family cemetery planning—an emblematic practice among elite scholar-official families of the time. Second, I will analyze the written records of two key architects of the Chao family cemetery—Chao Shuozhi (晁說之, 1059-1129) and Chao Buzhi—to reveal their intentions and methods, as well as their "selective application" of fengshui principles. As representatives of two distinct branches within the family, their objective was to secure favorable positions within the cemetery for their respective lineages and to ensure that future generations had ample burial space, even though their branches were relatively small at the time of planning. To achieve this, they strategically employed fengshui principles to minimize the burial space allocated to the other branch, ultimately forcing it to relocate. Lastly, I will synthesize archaeological findings from burial sites in the Huang-Huai Plain during the Northern Song period to identify and classify common instances of deviation from fengshui principles in cemetery planning. Current evidence suggests that these discrepancies can be attributed to two primary factors: constraints imposed by local geomorphological features and the organizational structure of kinship networks in the Central Plains.
In conclusion, this study highlights the dynamic interplay between fengshui theory and burial practices in Northern Song funerary traditions, demonstrating how elite families such as the Chaos selectively adjusted theoretical frameworks to accommodate pragmatic needs and familial strategies. In doing so, this research provides fresh insights into the interrelations between ideology, social structure, and spatial planning in medieval China.
This study examines the discrepancies between the theoretical framework of Northern Song fengshui principles and their actual application in burial practices, using archaeological evidence and historical texts. While previous research has primarily attempted to interpret burial layouts through fengshui guidelines, few tombs strictly adhered to these normative principles, and the reasons for such deviations remain underexplored. Focusing on the Chao family of Chan County, a politically and culturally influential lineage, this paper investigates how family members selectively applied fengshui to serve their own strategic interests. By analyzing cemetery planning and written records, it reveals how elite families manipulated theoretical frameworks to secure burial sites and maintain lineage dominance. The study further categorizes common deviations in Northern Song burial practices, attributing them to local geomorphological constraints and kinship structures. Ultimately, it provides new insights into the interaction between ideology, social organization, and spatial planning in medieval China.