The twilight of the Majapahit Kingdom (late 14th to early 16th century) and the rise of Christian liberation theology in 20th-century Latin America represent two distinct yet parallel moments of spiritual and social upheaval. Both contexts are marked by a collective yearning for peace—understood not merely as the absence of conflict but as the restoration of cosmic and social harmony. This paper employs a comparative theological approach and material religion to examine how the construction of Javanese temples in the slopes of Mount Lawu in Central Java, Indonesia, such as Sukuh, Cetho, and Kethek and the principles of Christian liberation theology reflect a shared commitment to decolonization, ritual transformation, and peacebuilding. By drawing on Raimon Panikkar’s idea of myth and Victor Turner’s ritual theory, the study highlights the theological and practical intersections between these traditions, offering a framework for interreligious dialogue on contemporary global challenges.
The decline of the Majapahit Kingdom was a period of profound crisis, marked by the Paregreg Civil War, natural disasters, and widespread crop failures. These events were interpreted as signs of divine wrath, prompting many Javanese to retreat to the mountains and construct temples such as Sukuh, Cetho, and Kethek. These temples, with their simplistic punden architecture and provocative reliefs, reflect a return to indigenous Javanese beliefs centered on mountains and water (agama tirta). The ruwatan ritual, a practice of soul-cleansing aimed at purging anger and wrath, served as a communal act of peacebuilding, addressing both spiritual and social disintegration.
The temples’ architecture and iconography embody the myth of peace—a narrative of cosmic and social restoration. By reverting to pre-Hindu-Buddhist forms of worship and reinterpreting the Bhairava Tantra tradition through a Javanese lens, the builders of these temples sought to decolonize the dominant religious paradigms of their time. This decolonial impulse underscores the adaptability of Javanese religion, which has historically integrated foreign influences into indigenous frameworks.
Christian liberation theology emerged in the mid-20th century as a response to systemic oppression, poverty, and environmental degradation in Latin America. Rooted in the Exodus narrative and the teachings of Jesus, liberation theology emphasizes the preferential option for the poor, the decolonization of faith, and the use of ritual and narrative to foster communal resilience and justice. Two key figures in this tradition, Ignacio Ellacuría and Cláudio Carvalhaes, provide a theological framework for understanding the intersections between liberation theology, rituals for liberation, and Javanese temple practices.
Ignacio Ellacuría articulated the concept of “liberating grace,” which calls for the transformation of oppressive structures and the empowerment of the marginalized. For Ellacuría, grace is not merely a spiritual concept but a force that drives social and political change. His theology aligns with the ruwatan ritual in Java, which also seeks to cleanse the soul and restore communal harmony. Both traditions emphasize the importance of addressing systemic injustice and reimagining peace as a holistic concept that encompasses spiritual, social, and environmental dimensions.
Cláudio Carvalhaes extends this tradition by emphasizing the role of liturgy as a site of resistance and decolonization. In his work, Carvalhaes argues that liturgical practices can disrupt dominant power structures and create spaces for marginalized voices to be heard. His theology of resistance aligns with the ruwatan ritual in Java, which also serves as a transformative practice aimed at restoring communal harmony. Both traditions highlight the importance of decolonizing dominant religious paradigms and reimagining peace as a holistic concept that encompasses spiritual, social, and environmental dimensions.
At the heart of both Javanese temple practices and Christian liberation theology is a shared commitment to ritual as a transformative tool for peacebuilding. Drawing on Victor Turner’s theory of ritual as a process of social and spiritual renewal, this study examines how the ruwatan ritual and Christian practices of reconciliation serve as mechanisms for healing and empowerment. Both rituals emphasize the cleansing of negative energies—whether anger and wrath in Java or sin and oppression in Christianity—and the restoration of communal harmony.
Raimon Panikkar’s idea of myth provides a framework for understanding the theological underpinnings of both traditions. For Panikkar, myth is not merely a story but a lived reality that integrates the divine, the human, and the cosmic. The myth of peace in Java, embodied in the temples’ architecture and iconography, parallels the Exodus narrative in liberation theology, which envisions a journey from oppression to freedom. Both myths serve as guiding narratives that inspire communities to envision and work toward a more just and harmonious world.
The comparative analysis of Javanese temple practices and Christian liberation theology offers valuable insights for addressing contemporary global challenges. Both traditions demonstrate the importance of decolonizing dominant religious paradigms and reimagining peace as a holistic concept that encompasses spiritual, social, and environmental dimensions. In a world grappling with environmental degradation, social inequality, and cultural erasure, the lessons of Sukuh, Cetho, and Kethek and liberation theology remind us of the transformative potential of myth and ritual.
This study also highlights the potential for interreligious dialogue on peacebuilding. By exploring the theological and practical intersections between these traditions, theologians can develop new frameworks for fostering resilience and harmony in diverse contexts. The myth of peace, as expressed in both Javanese temples and Christian liberation theology, offers a powerful vision of hope and transformation in times of crisis.
The temples of Sukuh, Cetho, and Kethek and the principles of Christian liberation theology represent two distinct yet parallel responses to social and spiritual upheaval. Both traditions emphasize the importance of decolonization, ritual transformation, and peacebuilding, offering valuable insights for addressing contemporary global challenges. By juxtaposing these traditions, this study enriches our understanding of interreligious peacebuilding and highlights the transformative potential of myth and ritual in fostering resilience and harmony.
This paper studies the myth of peace in the temples of Sukuh, Cetho, and Kethek during the twilight of the Majapahit Kingdom (14th–16th century) and Christian liberation theology. Both traditions emerged from periods of upheaval, seeking harmony through decolonial and transformative practices. The Javanese temples, with their punden architecture, Shaivite reinterpretations, and ruwatan rituals, reflect a quest for cosmic and social balance. Similarly, liberation theology, through Ignacio Ellacuría’s “liberating grace” and Cláudio Carvalhaes’s liturgical resistance, emphasizes decolonization and communal justice. Drawing on Raimon Panikkar’s intercultural myth as and Victor Turner’s ritual theory, this study examines how both traditions construct sacred narratives to address oppression and environmental crises. The ruwatan ritual is compared to Ellacuría’s and Carvalhaes’s transformative practices, highlighting a shared impulse to decolonize dominant paradigms and reimagine peace as spiritual and social renewal. This comparative approach enriches interreligious peacebuilding and offers a framework for contemporary challenges.