Migration, Religion, and Caste: The Impact of Bengali Settlement on Indigenous Buddhist Social Structures in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh have undergone profound socio-political and demographic transformations due to state-sponsored and spontaneous migration of Bengali settlers, predominantly Muslims, into this historically indigenous-dominated region. This migration, significantly intensified since the 1980s, has not only altered the ethno-religious composition of the CHT but has also reshaped indigenous Buddhist social structures, particularly in relation to caste-like hierarchies and intergroup relations. This study examines how the demographic shift has influenced Buddhist social stratification among the Chakma, Marma, and Tanchangya communities, investigating whether the indigenous Buddhist framework has resisted, accommodated, or transformed under the pressures of migration and changing power dynamics. 

Theoretical and conceptual framework

The study draws on theoretical perspectives from Buddhist social philosophy, critical caste studies, and migration theory, situating the CHT within broader discussions of ethnic and religious pluralism, displacement, and social restructuring. Although Buddhism traditionally rejects caste hierarchies, the presence of ranked social distinctions within CHT Buddhist communities suggests the persistence of hierarchical social structures that predate both Buddhist conversion and the arrival of Bengali settlers. This study interrogates the extent to which Buddhist ethical frameworks such as karuṇā(compassion), paṭicca samuppāda (interdependence), and dhamma (moral order) function as mechanisms of resilience or adaptation in response to large-scale migration and demographic shifts.  

Methodology 

This qualitative research employs an ethnographic approach, integrating semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and participant observations across multiple indigenous communities in the CHT. Key informants include Buddhist monks, village elders, local community leaders, Bengali settlers, and policymakers, providing a holistic view of the interrelations between migration, religion, and caste-like structures. Additionally, secondary data—historical records, policy documents, and anthropological literature—are analyzed to contextualize contemporary social transformations.  

Major findings 

Displacement and the reshaping of indigenous Buddhist social structures: The migration of Bengali settlers into the CHT has contributed to the gradual displacement of indigenous communities from traditional lands, impacting their economic and social organization. Many indigenous Buddhist groups, particularly the Chakma and Marma, have historically relied on a subsistence economy rooted in shifting cultivation (jhum) and communal land ownership. However, the influx of settlers—often backed by state-sponsored land grants—has resulted in land dispossession, reduced economic autonomy, and increased social stratification within Buddhist communities.  One Buddhist monk from a monastery in Rangamati lamented, "In the past, our society was more equal, but now land has become scarce. Those who lost their land are struggling. They work as laborers for settlers, and some are even converting to Christianity or Islam to survive." The increasing economic marginalization of landless indigenous Buddhists has created internal divisions, where wealthier, land-owning families maintain their social status, while the dispossessed face economic hardships that mimic caste-like marginalization.  

Caste-like hierarchies and the Buddhist response: While mainstream Buddhist philosophy opposes caste distinctions, ritual hierarchies and social stratifications within the monastic and lay communities of the CHT remain visible. The monastic community (sangha) plays a crucial role in maintaining moral and social order, but access to monastic leadership and patronage often favors elite indigenous families, reinforcing hierarchical divisions.  A Marma village elder from Bandarban remarked, “The monks teach that we are all equal in the eyes of the Buddha, but in reality, some families have more influence in the monastery. They sponsor ceremonies, they get the best seats at festivals, and their sons are more likely to be accepted as novice monks.” The Bengali migration has further complicated these dynamics. With increasing religious polarization, Buddhist leaders in the CHT have had to navigate both internal social stratifications and external pressures from the growing Muslim-majority population. The result is a complex negotiation of power, where Buddhism serves both as a cultural marker of resistance and an institutional structure that maintains indigenous hierarchies.  

Intergroup relations and the caste-like perception of religious conversion: Bengali Muslim migration has intensified intergroup tensions, particularly as economic and political power has increasingly shifted toward the settlers. This shift has led to a heightened perception of religious conversion as a form of social mobility among the indigenous population. Many economically marginalized Buddhists have converted to Christianity, perceiving it as a pathway to external support and education. Some have even converted to Islam to secure political or economic protection. However, these conversions are often viewed through a caste-like lens, with those who leave Buddhism sometimes facing social exclusion.  A Chakma schoolteacher in Khagrachhari noted, "If someone converts to Christianity, they are sometimes seen as betrayers of our community. They lose their place in certain rituals, and their families may struggle to find marriage partners. It’s not like the Hindu caste system, but there is definitely a division between ‘pure’ and ‘impure’ within our society." Thus, while Buddhist teachings advocate religious inclusivity, lived experiences reflect caste-like exclusions, shaped by both indigenous traditions and external pressures from the dominant Bengali Muslim population.  

State policies, military presence, and social control: The role of the Bangladeshi state and military in shaping interethnic and interreligious relations in the CHT cannot be overlooked. State-led settlement programs and military control over indigenous lands have contributed to systemic marginalization. Indigenous Buddhists have faced restrictions on land ownership, movement, and religious expression, further solidifying their socio-economic disadvantages. One Buddhist monk from Dighinala shared his frustration:  "The government says we have religious freedom, but when we try to build a new temple, we face obstacles. Meanwhile, new mosques are built for the settlers without any problems. This is not equality." The militarization of the CHT has also reinforced existing social hierarchies, as indigenous elites often collaborate with state authorities to maintain their own status, even as lower-status indigenous groups face displacement and disenfranchisement.  

Conclusion and implications

This study reveals that Bengali Muslim migration has reshaped the CHT’s demographic and religious landscape, deepening caste-like hierarchies within indigenous Buddhist communities. Economic marginalization, religious conversions, and state policies exacerbate inequalities. Protecting land rights, fostering interfaith dialogue, and reforming Buddhist institutions are crucial for inclusivity and reconciliation, with comparative studies offering further insights.

Keywords: Bengali Migration, Buddhist Social Structures, Caste, Religious Conversion, Land Dispossession, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Indigenous Identity, Intergroup Relations, State Policies