Scholarship on modern Islam has largely focused on Egypt and South Asia, particularly in studies of Islamic reformers and traditionalists (e.g., Adams 1933; Smith 1943; Gibb 1947; Hourani 1962; Ahmad 1967; Quadri 2021; Hammond 2022). While some research has examined less studied regions (e.g., Commins 1990; Sahar 2010), Palestine remains overlooked in studies of modern Islamic intellectual history. Instead, Palestinian history has been primarily studied through political and economic lenses, especially in the aftermath of the Nakba, with pre-mandate Palestine often studied through its social and cultural history (e.g., Doumani 1995; Tucker 2000). This paper aims to integrate Palestine into broader Islamic intellectual networks, emphasizing that Palestine’s history did not begin with European colonial rule but was shaped by a rich scholarly and religious tradition.
This paper examines the social and intellectual networks of Palestinian ulama in late Ottoman era, focusing on three Nabulsi ulama: Yousef al-Nabahani (d. 1932), Bakr al-Tamimi (d. unknown), and Abdullah Sufan al-Qaddumi (d. 1912). These scholars grew up in Nablus, a semi-autonomous province known for its resistance to foreign rule and its deeply rooted Islamic scholarly traditions. They belonged to established scholarly lineages that held positions such as judgeships and muftiships. Amid the Ottoman Empire’s modernization, these ulama actively defended the inherited traditional school of thought against perceived threats. Their efforts centered on preserving the theological traditions of the Ash‘ari and Maturidi schools, the four schools of law (madhahib), and the legitimacy of Sufi orders.
During Sultan Abdulhamid II's reign (1876–1909), three challenges to the traditionalist ulama came in the form of religious and political reformers, European Christian missionaries, and Wahhabis. In response to these challenges, al-Nabahani, al-Tamimi, and al-Qaddumi aligned themselves with like-minded ulama and bureaucratic functionaries in defense of the Sultan's policies while also emphasizing the preservation of the legal, theological, and Sufi traditions. Their defense of Ottoman legitimacy and their critiques of reformist and Wahhabi discourse placed them within the broader Hamidian traditionalist network—a circle of scholars and officials committed to upholding the empire’s traditionalist Islamic foundations.
Among these ulama, al-Nabahani is the most widely studied (e.g., Ghazal 1999; 2001; 2017; Chiabotti 2020; Seikaly 2002). However, previous research has primarily examined his thought rather than situating him within a broader network. His advocacy for strict adherence to traditional Islamic law (taqlīd) and Sufi practices was a response to the perceived decline of traditional religious authority. His works included refutations of Wahhabism, reformist movements, and Christian missionary activities. Despite his prominence, scholars such as Amal Ghazal (1999) have called for further research into other ulama who were involved in the traditional network.
Al-Qaddumi and al-Tamimi remain understudied, yet their intellectual contributions reveal the extent of Palestinian engagement in Hamidian-era religious debates. Al-Qaddumi, a Nablusi jurist who spent time in Damascus and the Hijaz, authored two apologetic works. Al-Manhag al-aḥmad defended the Hanbali school against Wahhabi reinterpretations, while Al-Ajwiba al-durriya refuted Christian missionary polemics. Meanwhile, al-Tamimi, who studied in Egypt before returning to Nablus, wrote Al-Sayf al-ṣaqīl, a response to a Protestant missionary letter printed in Jerusalem. He dedicated the book to Sultan Abdulhamid, whom he credited with promoting Islamic scholarship.
Applying network theory, this paper demonstrates that Palestinian traditionalist discourse did not develop in isolation but was shaped through sustained intellectual exchanges. These connections were facilitated by journals, correspondence, and travel, forming a dynamic communication network that linked Palestinian ulama with scholars across the Ottoman world. The paper investigates their discourses by examining correspondences with contemporary scholars and their institutional affiliations. It also shows that while Nabulsi ulama were part of a broader network of like-minded intellectuals spanning Istanbul, Damascus, Aleppo, and Cairo, their responses were also shaped by their unique provincial context. A key distinction is that, unlike their counterparts in Damascus and Cairo, Palestinian traditionalist ulama placed greater emphasis on countering missionary activities. This focus stemmed from the extensive European missionary institutions and schools established in Palestine, which faced particularly strong opposition in Nablus.
This paper critically examines what it meant to be a “traditionalist” in the Hamidian era, highlighting that traditionalism was not merely an intellectual position but also a deeply political and social stance. These ulama were more than scholars; they were political actors who strategically aligned with state officials, including Sultan Abdulhamid II, to safeguard both Islamic legal traditions and ulama social authority. As European-educated elites and modernist reformers increasingly challenged the role of the ulama, their activism became a form of resistance against these shifting power dynamics. By situating Palestinian ulama within the broader Hamidian network, this paper offers a more nuanced understanding of Islamic traditionalism in the late Ottoman world. It underscores their role as active participants in shaping Ottoman religious and political discourse, shedding new light on their position in the empire’s intellectual history.
Scholarship on modern Islam has largely focused on Egypt and South Asia, overlooking Palestine’s intellectual history. This paper integrates Palestine into broader Islamic networks by examining three late Ottoman Nabulsi ulama: Yousef al-Nabahani, Bakr al-Tamimi, and Abdullah Sufan al-Qaddumi. These scholars, rooted in established religious lineages, defended traditionalist thought against reformist, missionary, and Wahhabi challenges during Sultan Abdulhamid II’s reign. Their efforts centered on preserving Ash‘ari and Maturidi theology, traditional four schools of law, and Sufi traditions. Applying network theory, this study demonstrates that their discourse evolved through intellectual exchanges across Istanbul, Damascus, Aleppo, and Cairo, though Palestinian ulama placed unique emphasis on countering Christian missionary activities. By positioning them within the Hamidian traditionalist network, this paper argues that Palestinian scholars were not passive provincial figures but active participants in shaping Ottoman religious and political discourse, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of Islamic traditionalism in the Ottoman empire.