Constructing Memory of the Late Masters: Stūpa Inscriptions for Buddhist Monastics of Fourteenth-Century China

This paper explores the theme of “the Afterlives of Memory” by presenting a case study on the genre of Buddhist stūpa inscription (Ch. taming) from fourteenth-century China. A form of epitaph broadly defined, this type of inscription was carved on the surface of a stūpa, a typically monumental stone structure with Indian origins that contains the relics of a deceased Buddhist monastic. The practice of inscribing stūpas originated perhaps in the sixth century CE and has since flourished in China up to the present day. Rather than offering an analysis that focuses solely on the genre’s formal and stylistic features, this paper will approach the genre of stūpa inscriptions from the perspective of memory construction, and examine practical matters and considerations that shaped the process by which memory was committed to writing and materialized into an inscription on stone. In this way, I will consider both the stone structure bearing the inscription and the text of the inscription. The proposed paper will engage the theme of “the Afterlives of Memory” in the context of Chinese Buddhist stūpa inscriptions through an investigation of the funerary practices of Buddhist monastics and Buddhist cultures of remembrance. It will unfold in three main sections.

To begin with, stūpa inscriptions are about the afterlives of memory; they preserve a selective, crafted representation of the living people’s memories of a late Buddhist monk or nun. Although stūpa inscriptions include memories from the time before and after the death of the monastic, the very moment of passing served as a key focal and anchor point for the living, triggering a series of codified funerary and memorial rituals and the construction of a stūpa. In other words, the moment of passing marked the initiation of memory practices. Therefore, the paper will start with a survey of Buddhist monastic funerals in the middle period of Chinese history (the seventh to the fifteenth centuries). Particular attention will be given to the place of stūpa inscription in the funerary procedure. When was a stūpa built? Did all stūpas come with an inscription? Who was responsible for collecting biographical information about the dead, delivering it to an eminent writer invited to compose the inscription in an age when long-distance correspondence was difficult, and for securing the funds for building the stūpa? Drawing on medieval Buddhist encyclopedias, ritual literature, and monastic regulations, I will provide an overview of these questions to set the genre of stūpa inscriptionswithin its religious and social contexts. 

Just as epitaphs have been subject to the critical eyes of modern scholars of Chinese funerary writings, stūpa inscriptions were not always favorably received within the monastic communities. Indeed, although by the fourteenth century it had become a set practice to invite esteemed monastic and lay writers to compose memorial inscriptions for eminent Buddhist monastics after their death, Buddhists had varied opinions about the practice. Some monastics made it clear to their disciples that a stūpa inscription would be unnecessary. Others even resisted the idea of erecting a stūpa for them after death. Still others criticized the practice of writing stūpa inscriptions for the late masters on the grounds that they were full of unreliable miracles and failed to tell an accurate account of the life of the deceased. At the same time, supporters of stūpa inscriptions made a case for the genre, contending that they played an important role in preserving memories of eminent monks and nuns. Without being committed to writing, they say, how could the virtuous deeds of the past sages be transmitted? A fear of losing memories of Buddhist role models is a recurring theme in stūpa inscriptions from this period. 

In the third and final section, I will conduct close readings of several notable cases that highlight the tensions, agendas, and logistical challenges involved in the creation of stūpa inscriptions. The selected examples concern situations of delayed stūpa inscriptions and those written and inscribed on a stūpa against the will of the deceased. The exceptional cases offer valuable insights into the complex negotiations and power dynamics behind the commission of stūpa inscriptions. What we will see are careful constructions of serious, touching, and adorable memories of the deceased master, resulting from the interplay of the close disciples of the deceased monk, the lay and monastic friends of the deceased, and powerful political patrons. In cases where the inscriptions were written by authors who were acquaintances of the late masters, we find some of the most evocative examples of the genre that feature deeply personal memories the authors held dear.

Taken as a whole, this paper proposes to study memory cultures and memory practices in Chinese Buddhism through the genre of stūpa inscriptions. The inscriptions on the relic monuments carry the memories of the deceased beyond the times of those whose memories were preserved in this manner. By being written down and inscribed on stone, the memories acquire a life of their own.