Liberation and Sovereignty: Reinterpreting Mokṣa in Kauṇḍinya’s Pāśupata Exegesis

Scholars have framed liberation (mokṣa) in terms of negative freedom, or the cessation of suffering from worldly entanglements. Pāśupata Śaivism has been similarly understood through duḥkhānta (cessation of suffering). However, this paper argues that Kauṇḍinya’s soteriology is more complex, incorporating aiśvarya (sovereignty) alongside duḥkhānta, thus introducing a dimension of positive freedom. While negative freedom (duḥkhānta) aligns with renunciatory traditions, positive freedom (aiśvarya) suggests an active exercise of divine will. Kauṇḍinya suggests that liberation from bondage (pāśa) is not merely a means to ending suffering but also leads to the attainment of absolute sovereignty—a state in which the practitioner acquires divine agency (śivatva) and unites with Śiva (sāyujya).  By analyzing Kauṇḍinya’s use of aiśvarya, śivatva, and sāyujya, this paper examines the tension in Pāśupata thought, challenging standard ascetic interpretations and offering new insights into early Śaiva conceptualizations of liberation and agency.