Secularization of Contemplation: the Example of Prekṣā-Dhyāna

The traditional Jain contemplative practice of anuprekṣā has recently been reimagined and popularized as a central component of prekṣā-dhyāna, a modern meditation and yoga system developed by Mahapragya (1920–2010), the 10th Jain ācārya of the Śvetāmbara Terāpanth. While prekṣā-dhyāna is legitimized by tracing it back to the religious practices of Mahāvīra, it is also shaped by interactions with Hatḥa yogic traditions, as well as contemporary scientific ideas, including those from psychotherapy. This paper investigates how the aims and status of anuprekṣā have evolved over time—from a purely monastic meditative practice with soteriological goals to a more secular, layperson-accessible approach focused on worldly concerns. Mahāprajña maintained ancient roots while adopting a modernist approach, reinterpreting ancient contemplative practices with new procedures. This paper traces the transformation of anuprekṣā from a liberating religious practice to one aimed at a modern form of personal transformation.

Anuprekṣā is an ancient Jain meditative practice explained in the Uttarādhyayanasūtra, where it is described alongside its benefits within the framework of Jain karmic theory. This text outlines the daily routine of ascetics, which includes practices like self-study (svādhyāya) and contemplation (anuprekṣā). An early Digambara text attributed to Kundakunda, the Vārassa-aṇuvekkhā or “Twelve Contemplations,” further elaborates on these practices. Schubring notes that the Uttarādhyayanasūtra provides examples in its tenth chapter to illustrate different types of anuprekṣā, such as a falling leaf or a dew-drop hanging from a blade of grass, emphasizing the transient nature of life. He observes that these anuprekṣās have a “pessimistic character” (Schubring 2000, 307). By contrast, in the 17th century, Upādhyāya Yaśovijaya (1624–1688) expanded the traditional twelve contemplations to sixteen, with the final four—friendliness (maitrī), joy for others (pramoda), compassion (kāruṇya), and equanimity (mādhyasthya)—taking on a notably optimistic tone. These contemplations, akin to the Buddhist Brahmavihāras, appear in his widely read work among Jain monks and nuns, Śānta Sudhārasa Bhāvanā. Prior to this early modern period, no specific procedural guidelines had been established for the practice of anuprekṣā.

Mahāprajña presented a systematized, modern adaptation of anuprekṣā, distinct from its traditional contemplative forms, known as prekṣā-dhyāna. This system is divided into two components: (1) concentration of perception (prekṣā) and (2) concentration of thought (anuprekṣā). Within the prekṣā-dhyāna framework, anuprekṣā refers to contemplation on what one has perceived and experienced during the practice of prekṣā meditation. Prekṣā and anuprekṣā are thus complementary, as one cannot sustain perception (prekṣā) indefinitely nor can one engage in contemplation (anuprekṣā) forever. Contemplation both precedes and follows prekṣā (Mahāprajña 1999, 2). This modern reframing of contemplation integrates various steps that differ from traditional, thought-based earlier contemplation approaches. 

For Mahāprajña, prekṣā and anuprekṣā are two distinct concepts, yet they represent the same underlying motivations. An illustrative example of this can be drawn from the transformation of water: when liquid water solidifies, it becomes ice, but the substance remains the same water. The difference lies in the state, not the essence. Similarly, anuprekṣā represents the fluid state of consciousness, flowing in a regulated and channelized manner. When this fluid consciousness “solidifies”—that is, when it becomes concentrated on a single point—it transforms into dhyāna. Before it attains this focused, steady state, it remains in the form of anuprekṣā (Mahāprajña, 1999b, 72).

Mahāprajña introduced secular contemplations, focusing on the transformation of personality, value inculcation, health, and even nationality. He developed over twenty-five contemplations specifically aimed at the transformation of personality. His incorporation of scientific concepts marks a shift towards modernizing Jain contemplative practices, adapting them with a secular orientation. By mixing elements from canonical Jain texts with ideas from other contemplative traditions, along with offering new interpretations and innovations, he redefined anuprekṣā as a modern meditation practice. His approach emphasized the “purification of the psyche,” the promotion of health and well-being, and the pursuit of liberation at the same time. These goals were designed to appeal to both laity and monastics, creating a “socio-spiritual” model of contemplative meditation. 

The modern form of anuprekṣā is presented as a tool for personality development. The practice consists of cultivating desired qualities through contemplation by using an anthropomorphic image, a model known as pañcāṅgapuruṣa-dhyāna. The physical body is represented to transform negative emotions into positive qualities. Practitioners create a mental image of the human body and contemplate virtues associated with different body parts to bring about the desired changes. The first stage of this meditation involves bodily relaxation with self-awareness, which Mahāprajña suggests helps establish contact with the subconscious mind, allowing for deeper transformation. Through this process, the practice of anuprekṣā aims to cultivate positive qualities in the practitioner’s character and personality.

To sum up, the main difference between the traditional practice and modern anuprekṣā lies in their approaches: the premodern method primarily involved mental repetition, while prekṣā-dhyāna integrates scientific insights from human anatomy, physiology, and psychology into its contemplative practices.