An Affective Ritual? Reimagining Chigo Kanjō in Kon Tōkō’s Chigo (1936)

This paper explores the complex interplay between medieval ritualism and modern literary expression in Kon Tōkō’s (1898–1977) novella Chigo (“The Acolyte”), first published in 1936. Kon is a prominent figure in early twentieth-century Japanese literature. As a founding member of the New-Sensationalism (shin kankakuha) movement among writers such as Kawabata Yasunari and Yokomitsu Riichi, Kon embodied a modern sensibility in his works that was novel and groundbreaking. By the time he wrote Chigo, Kon was already well-established in literary circles, contributing to key publications such as Shinshichō and Bungei shunjū. However, lesser known is another title that he wrote as a Tendai priest, shortly after he had taken tonsure on Mt. Hiei in 1930. This implies that his significance extends beyond modern literature. His engagement with medieval Japanese religious practices and narratives reveals a profound attempt to bridge the temporal and thematic divides between premodern and modern Japan. This paper argues that Chigo embodies Kon’s remarkable blending of elements from literary didactic tales (setsuwa), classical novels, to ritual manuals, through which Kon offers a modern reimagining of medieval ritualism, with particular emphasis on the controversial practice of the Consecration of Acolytes (Chigo Kanjō).

Set in the medieval period (twelfth to sixteenth centuries), Chigo captures the romantic adoration and complex emotional landscapes of monks towards their acolytes (chigo). The novella tells the story of Renshū, a high priest from the Western Pagoda area of Mt. Hiei, who becomes enamored with Hanawaka-maru, a young acolyte residing at the Hongaku’in cloister. The narrative explores themes of power, devotion, and desire within the monastic community, which are all woven into a story that is at once poetic and unsettling. As the plot unfolds, Renshū abandons Hanawaka-maru for another boy, Aji-maru, leaving the fate of the forsaken acolyte tragically ambiguous. Despite its limited recognition, the novella was praised by Tanizaki Jun’ichirō, who commended Kon’s ability to craft such a complex and aesthetically appealing narrative, suggesting that Chigo transcended both conventional monastic writing and the capabilities of ordinary novelists.

Central to this study is the way in which Kon reinterprets the medieval ritual of Chigo Kanjō. This initiation rite, historically practiced in secrecy by Tendai monks, involved the ritual sanctification and sexual pairing of young acolytes with senior monks. Kon’s portrayal of this practice is significant not merely for its literary value but for the insights it offers into the historical intersections of sexuality, power, and religious rituals in medieval Japan. The ritual is depicted with a dual emphasis: on one hand, it appears as a spiritual and institutional practice that sanctifies the acolyte’s status within the monastic hierarchy; on the other, it is embedded in a broader social context of courtship and rivalries over lovers. By presenting the ritual as a formalized religious act set within a specific social milieu, Kon highlights the contested networks of bonding and belonging that characterize the pseudo-romantic relationships between monks and chigo. This portrayal invites readers to reconsider the historical context surrounding monastic sexuality, not merely as an aberration but as a complex interplay of spiritual devotion and worldly desire.

The novella’s exploration of power dynamics within the monastic community serves as a critique of institutional authority. The contrasting characters of Keisan—a destitute and middle-aged monk also infatuated with Hanawaka-maru— and Renshū illustrate the disparities of wealth, influence, and desirability that permeated the medieval clerical hierarchy. Renshū’s ability to claim Hanawaka-maru reflects the broader dynamics of privilege and power, while Keisan’s unrequited longing exposes the marginalization of those who lack material resources or monastic rank. This dynamic allows for a reevaluation of medieval Buddhist institutions not merely as sites of religious practice but as complex social systems marked by hierarchies that directly influence expressions of desire and attachment.

Kon’s decision to frame Chigo within the context of ritual manuals and didactic tales further underscores the novella’s engagement with medieval religious literature. The narrative structure mirrors that of chigo monogatari (“Acolyte Tales”), a genre of medieval prose that often depicts the tragic and ephemeral nature of relationships between monks and their acolytes. These tales, which combine elements of Buddhist moral teachings with romantic tragedy, typically emphasize themes of karmic retribution and the impermanence of worldly attachments. By adopting this narrative framework, Kon not only situates Chigo within a recognizable medieval literary tradition but also incorporates its didactic intent, by revealing a meditation on the inescapable entanglement of desire as both an obstacle and a catalyst for spiritual growth.

This paper also considers the contribution of Kon’s readings to our understanding of Chigo Kanjō. While the doctrinal and institutional aspects of this ritual are more thoroughly studied, Kon’s narrative foregrounds its experiential and affective dimensions. His depiction of the emotional bonds between monks and acolytes, with its emphasis on sensorial and emotional resonance, challenges the tendency to abstract rituals into their doctrinal components alone. Instead, Kon suggests that rituals functioned as complex sites of emotional and sensory engagement, where spiritual progress and worldly desire were inextricably linked. This focus on emotions surrounding rituals invites a reconsideration of how medieval Buddhist practices were rearticulated through modern interpretation, not merely as formalized acts of devotion but also as profound engagements with the affect of religious life.

In conclusion, this paper argues that Kon Tōkō’s Chigo serves as a vital nexus for rethinking the relationship between medieval ritualism and modern literature. By drawing on elements from setsuwa, classical novels, and ritual manuals, Kon not only reconstructs the world of medieval Japanese monasticism but also interrogates its underlying power dynamics and moral contradictions. His portrayal of Chigo Kanjō invites readers to confront the ambiguities of desire and sanctity, suggesting that the rituals of medieval Japan cannot be fully understood without accounting for their affective and erotic dimensions. Chigo presents a compelling case for the continued relevance of premodern religious practices in understanding the ethos of modern Japanese literature. By reconstructing the social context of medieval Japan, Kon’s novella reveals the intricate ways in which modern literature can reimagine and engage with historical traditions.