The overarching theme of this year’s AAR conference is Freedom, and the organizers of the Bahá’í Studies Unit invite papers that explore the intersection of the Bahá’í Faith with various methodologies in the study of religion, including theological perspectives. This paper seeks to connect the broader theme of the conference with the specific research questions posed by the Bahá’í Studies Unit.
It examines the relationship between religious freedom and academic methodologies in religious studies by comparing the situation of the Bahá’ís in Iran to the situation of the Bahá’ís in Germany. It argues that the absence of a developed methodology for the academic study of religion in Iran significantly contributes to the stark contrast in how Bahá’ís are treated in these two countries.
In Iran, the Islamic Republic’s constitution, rooted in an exclusivist Islamic theological framework, denies Bahá’ís the right to religious freedom. Since Iranian theological discourse does not acknowledge post-Islamic monotheistic religions, Bahá’ís are excluded from legal recognition and are systematically persecuted. In contrast, Bahá’ís in Germany are legally permitted to practice their faith freely and are not subject to state-sanctioned discrimination. While they may still encounter social prejudice, such instances are incomparable to the existential threats faced by Bahá’ís in Iran.
The paper highlights that, in Germany and other Western countries, religious studies developed alongside Christian theology. The emergence of this discipline gradually challenged Christian exclusivism, allowing for a more inclusive and pluralistic approach to studying religious diversity. This shift is exemplified by the German Religionsschule des Verstehens -- with proponents such as Rudolf Otto, Gustav Mensching, Friedrich Heiler and nowadays Udo Tworuschka-- which promotes a sympathetic study of non-Christian world religions. In time, Christian theology in Germany has evolved to incorporate inclusivist and, in some cases, even pluralist perspectives, which have also influenced interreligious dialogue.
By contrast, Iranian religious and academic institutions lack a similar approach to the field of religious studies. Instead, the study of religion is predominantly conducted within the framework of an exclusivist theological paradigm. While some Shi’a scholars in Iran have recently called for a more tolerant approach toward Bahá’ís, these voices remain a minority and have not led to substantial methodological shifts within institutionalized religious studies in Iran.
This exclusivist-theological perspective in Iran is directly reflected in its legal and political structures, which systematically deny Bahá’ís their religious freedom and prohibit them from practicing their faith openly. The situation of Bahá’ís in Iran is distinct from that of other religious minorities, such as Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians, who, as dhimmi and ahl al-kitāb (people of the book), enjoy limited legal rights and religious freedoms under Islamic law. Bahá’ís, however, are considered in Iran as a "misled sect" and "cult" and are therefore denied any recognition or protection under Iranian law.
The paper concludes by highlighting an asymmetry in the global discourse on religious freedom. As Hans Küng, the founder of the Global Ethic project, has pointed out (see Hans Küng, Josef van Ess, Christentum und Weltreligionen, Munich 1998, p. 97), Muslim institutions in Western democratic countries rightly demand legal and political freedoms equal to those of Christian communities. However, at the same time, these institutions often fail or refuse to extend the same freedoms to religious minorities, such as the Bahá’ís, in their home countries. This contradiction exposes a fundamental inconsistency and underscores broader challenges in achieving religious freedom on a global scale.
This paper examines the intersection of religious freedom and academic methodology by comparing the treatment of Bahá’ís in Iran and Germany. While Iran, reflecting an exclusivist Islamic theological framework, denies Bahá’ís religious freedom, Germany allows them to practice their faith freely. A key factor in this disparity is the absence of a developed methodology for religious studies in Iran. Unlike Germany, where religious studies evolved alongside or even merged with Christian theology—exemplified by the Religionsschule des Verstehens—Iranian institutions largely follow an exclusivist theological paradigm. Although some Shi‘a scholars advocate for greater tolerance, their influence remains limited. Additionally, a broader challenge to global religious freedom arises when Muslim institutions in the West demand rights that are not granted to minorities, such as the Bahá’ís, in the Islamic world.