Chinese Buddhists Abroad: Japanese Buddhism and the Chinese Esoteric Buddhist Revival

This project seeks to gain a better understanding of why Chinese Buddhists sought out Esoteric Buddhism in Japan, how this influenced the Chinese Buddhist landscape, and influenced Sino-Japanese relations. Except for Ester Bianchi’s 2004 work on “The Tantric Rebirth Movement in Modern China,” this topic is only discussed in passing; therefore, the main goal is to provide depth to an interesting case of recent transnational Buddhist history. I will thus seek to provide a better understanding of the place of Esoteric Buddhism during the Chinese Buddhist Revival as well as Taixu’s conceptualization of Renjian Buddhism 人间佛教. From the 1910s through the 1930s, a series of Chinese Buddhists sought out Esoteric Buddhism in Japan, becoming pivotal figures in the revival of Esoteric Buddhism in China among both monastics and the laity. This seeking out of Japanese Buddhism started with the late 19th century Meiji Restoration causing many Chinese Buddhists to see Japanese Buddhism as a modern model that could be used when forming a modern Chinese Buddhism. This modernization movement goes along with the 1911 revolution and creation of the new Republic of China. Monks seeking to study Esoteric Buddhism chose to study in Japan for it was perceived as maintaining lost Chinese lineages. These influential Buddhist figures, who will be discussed below, would play an important role in not only reviving Esoteric Buddhism in China but also bridging relations with Japanese Buddhists at the East Asian Buddhist Conference *dongya fojiao dahui* 东亚佛教大会 of 1925, translation Japanese esoteric teachings for Chinese readers, and by representing Chinese Buddhists at the Shingon headquarters of Koyasan. This project will also highlight a case study of how returning monks caused a shift in the laity surrounding Taixu’s 太虚Wuchang Foxueyuan 武昌佛学院 towards Esoteric Buddhism as well as how they lay the ground for a later switch to Tibetan Buddhism within China.

By first tracing the Chinese Buddhists who sought out Esoteric Buddhism in Japan, the state of Chinese Buddhism that would influence Buddhists to travel to Japan will be better understood as well as what changes to the Chinese Buddhist landscape they would cause as they returned. Gui Bohua (桂伯华 1861-1915) is one of the first Chinese Buddhists in the modern era to seek out Esoteric Buddhism in Japan. Starting in 1912 he shifted towards Shingon Buddhism after the death of his brother and then mother. Prior to Esoteric Buddhism being consider its own school of Buddhism missing from China in the 1920s-30s, Gui’s shift towards esoteric practices provides an interesting starting point for better understanding Chinese interest in Japanese Esoteric Buddhism (Tarocco 2007, 39). This view would echo across the Buddhist landscape as many considered Esoteric Buddhism as a potential method for deeper spiritual development and a method to protect one’s country and loved ones. Wang Hongyuan’s (王弘愿 1876-1937) translations of Gonda Raifu’s (權田雷斧 1846-1934) writings on Shingon Buddhism influenced many, including Chunmi (纯密 1901-1970), who consequently traveled to the Shingon headquarters of Koyasan from 1921-1924, studying to become an Ācārya 阿闍梨, spreading its teachings around China, and later bringing back esoteric texts and ritual implements in 1934. Esoteric practitioner, Manshujiedi (曼殊揭諦 ?-19?), also joined Wang Hongyuan in traveling to Japan to finish their studies under Gonda Raifu. These figures took interest in Esoteric Buddhism both as a missing part of Chinese Buddhism and as a potential alternative to western modernity. While the Weishi 唯识 (Yogācāra) revival provided monks with native methods of logic and understanding the mind, Shingon provided a path to saving oneself and a new China.

Chinese Buddhists seeking out Japanese esoteric knowledge up until the late 1930s goes against the common narrative of all Japanese Buddhists being nationalistic first and Buddhist second, thus leaving room for a more nuanced understanding of Japanese Buddhists other than simply imperialist. One important aspect of the revival of Esoteric Buddhism from Japan to China is the increased Sino-Japanese relationships that were created. Most studied at Shingon’s head temple at Koyasan, many through Gonda Raifu eventually bringing him to China. These Chinese monks were present at the East Asian Buddhist Conference, one of the biggest transnational Buddhist meetings in the early 20th century, and they helped to translate Japanese Esoteric teachings for Chinese readers. Surprisingly, even as Japan colonized Taiwan starting in 1895 and Manchuria in 1931, these Esoteric Buddhists continued to maintain strong relations with Japanese Buddhists.

Taixu’s Wuchang Foxueyuan will serve as a case study for how an increase interest in Esoteric Buddhism influenced the Buddhist landscape in China. Both Dayong (大勇 1893-1929) and Chisong (持松 1894-1972) are connected with Taixu through the Wuchang Foxueyuan and his personal disciples. These two monks traveled to Japan in 1923 originally to inspect the state of Japanese Buddhism, a mission Taixu was very interested in, seeking to compare Sino-Japanese Buddhism in a series of periodical writings, as well as to understand Esoteric Buddhism. Dayong’s close relationship to Taixu and the Wuchang Foxueyuan must have influenced the lay community supporting the school eventually leading to their defunding of the school in favor of Esoteric Buddhism. Chisong also influenced the school through giving esoteric vows to disciples of Taixu including Chen Yuanbai 陳元白 (1877-1940), who was assisting Taixu with the school. While Taixu’s school highlights the interest in rigorous religious and academic study of Buddhism, Dayong and Chisong’s influence shows the shifting tides of lay interest. This ultimately highlights Rongdao Lai’s emphasis of Republican Buddhism being highly lay reliant (Lai 2017, 58).  

This project will ultimately locate Japanese origins of the revival of Esoteric Buddhism within China, its improvement of Sino-Japanese relations, its influence on Renjian Buddhism 人间佛教and its place within the larger Chinese Buddhist revival.