The Cognitive Construction of Companions in Shamanism

This presentation outlines some of the cognitive mechanisms and cultural conditions that shape “Cognitive Companion Construction” (CCC) in shamanism. It draws from and extends insights from the literature in the cognitive science of religion (CSR), which provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the intricacies of religious beliefs and practices, including those within shamanism. The latter term, much like “religion” itself, is contested and contentious, especially among those (including the current author) who worry about the dangers of essentialism and colonialism in the study of these phenomena. For the purposes of this paper, “shamanism” will be operationalized to refer to ecstatic experiences and practices that involve altered states of consciousness through which individuals or groups intend to engage with “spirits” for healing, divination, guiding the dead, or similar purposes. Here I will explore CCC in shamanism in both traditional and secularizing settings, the cognitive capacities and tendencies it manifests, and the role of cultural contexts in facilitating or constraining these expressions.

I will begin with a brief discussion of traditional “shamanic” experiences and practices, highlighting the methodological challenges in cross-cultural comparison and the strengths and weaknesses of ethnographic analysis as an approach to the topic. I will emphasize the value of taking a multidisciplinary approach, which is necessary to grasp the complexity of shamanic practices, incorporating insights from cognitive psychology, neuroscience, religious studies, and other fields. Given the methodological challenges of studying altered states of consciousness and the subjective nature of spiritual experiences, it will be important to touch briefly on issues surrounding methodological (and metaphysical) naturalism. This section will also include a discussion of “neo-shamanism,” describing some of the diverse ways in which individuals and groups in secularizing contexts engage in modes of CCC that they deem “shamanic.”  

Second, the presentation will identify some of the cognitive capacities and tendencies expressed in shamanism and neo-shamanism. Broadly speaking, these include the capacity for altered states of consciousness, symbolic thought, the propensity for narrative construction, and the tendency to seek meaning and causality in events – especially events that are confusing or anxiolytic. Shamanism harnesses these capacities by embedding them within rich symbolic systems and narratives that structure worldviews and lifeways. This process not only facilitates the transmission and retention of shamanic knowledge but also strengthens social cohesion within the community, a point to which I will return in more detail in the third section. Research in CSR suggests that altered states of consciousness, often induced through rhythmic drumming, dancing, or the use of psychoactive substances, can lead to experiences of transcendence, communication with non-human entities, and profound emotional and psychological transformations. These experiences are supported by cognitive processes such as hyperactive agency detection, theory of mind, and teleonomic reasoning, which facilitate the perception of extra agency and intentionality in the spiritual experiences central to shamanism. The discussion of the cognitive mechanisms at work in shamanism will be framed in light of the work of Shults (2014, 2018, 2020) in fractionating these and other “religious” phenomena.

Third, the presentation will explore how cultural contexts facilitate or constrain the expression of shamanic practices. I will argue that while the cognitive foundations of shamanism are panhuman, their manifestations are deeply influenced by cultural factors. For instance, the role of shamans, the techniques they use, and the kinds of spirits they interact with can vary significantly across cultures. These variations reflect how different societies structure their understanding of the cosmos, the natural environment, and the human psyche. In particular, I will distinguish between the general form that shamanism takes in groups whose cohesion is primarily upheld through what Durkheim called “collective effervescence” and the general form it takes in groups in secularizing contexts whose social cohesion is upheld through “distributive effervescence” (McCaffree and Shults, 2022). The latter theorize that there are modes of social cohesion that lie along a continuum (shaped more or less by collective vs. distributive effervescence).

These modes are determined in part by historically contingent, macro-level variables that influence the scope, volume, and rate of interactions within human populations. Such variables include population size, territory size, population diversity, population density, economic and political decentralization, and the efficacy and accessibility of transportation and communication technologies. Such variables are (relatively) low in the societies whose coherence depends on Durkheimian collective effervescence generated by the emotional energy of totemic ritual engagement with in-group members. As these variables increase, so do the total number of (active or passive) interaction partners, the spatial distribution of (physical or virtual) interactions, and the frequency of interactions with new individuals (perceived as physically or ideologically unfamiliar or dissimilar). The emotional energy that can be generated by this greater scope, volume, and rate of interactions produces what can be called distributive effervescence.  

McCaffree and Shults also theorize that a series of micro-level mechanisms are at work in the movement along the continuum of modes of cohesion. The conditions briefly described in the previous paragraph provide a context in which new forms of potentially positive-sum exchange between relatively heterogenous individuals can emerge and expand. “Positive-sum” refers to productive, reciprocal, generalized, and negotiated experiences in which the interaction partners are not viewed as combatants or competitors for scarce resources. Such experiences can produce positively valanced interpretations of internal cues of physiological arousal across punctuated interactions. Whether planned or serendipitous, these interactions are often more surprising and more arousing than tediously repeated rituals with homogenous others. In such contexts, options for self-identity and self-expression become more flexible, free, and fluid. Novelty, curiosity, and even a bit of euphoric anxiety (which can intensify emotional arousal) can become motivating factors for individuals to seek unfamiliar ecstatic experiences such as those found in contemporary neo-shamanisms.

The conclusion will summarize the complex interplay between human cognitive capacities and cultural contexts in CCC within shamanism. This exploration not only enriches our understanding of shamanism itself but also contributes to the broader field of the cognitive science of religion by highlighting the dynamic interplay between the mind and culture in the realm of religious beliefs and practices.