Bhakti Practices from the Subaltern Margins

The term “subaltern” signals a condition of subordination and marginalization in relation to an elite power structure; subalternity is contingent upon power disparities that manifest at both local and structural levels (Guha 1982). The papers presented in this panel collectively examine the role of *bhakti* (devotion) in various subaltern contexts, where subordination occurs along the axes of caste, class, linguistic privilege, and/or gender. Papers on this panel primarily focus on regional vernacular expressions of *bhakti* and also, in some cases, its interaction with Sanskrit. While scholars generally perceive *bhakti* as a language affirming the rights of marginalized groups, presenters also show that the lived realities and histories of *bhakti* can be murkier.  

The panel elucidates the multifaceted nature of *bhakti* as it operates within marginalized communities across diverse socio-cultural milieus and historical periods. Presentations span from thirteenth-century Karnataka and fourteenth-century Maharashtra to nineteenth-century Kerala and contemporary Gujarat and Bengal. *Bhakti* often emerges as a vehicle for asserting identity, dignity, and agency in the face of systemic discrimination and social hierarchies, sometimes functioning as a language of power or protest (Sharma et al. 2019). Additionally, the panel primarily examines *bhakti* as a language of participation (Pechelis 2012) and embodiment (Holdrege 2015), wherein practitioners engage with gods to build relationships. The panel addresses two interrelated questions: How does bhakti shape a practitioner’s navigation of subaltern marginalization, and conversely, how does subaltern marginalization reshape bhakti? Papers in the panel tackle these inquiries through historical and ethnographic research.

The first two presentations trace the early growth of anti-caste critique within *bhakti* traditions and its confrontation with Brahmanical orthodoxy and exclusivity. These traditions had to negotiate the elitist and exclusivist ideologies of the medieval era. Our panel addresses these tensions where we see *bhakti* grappling with the socio-cultural realities of its time, often incorporating these powerful structures from within, as we see in the case of the first presentation. The first presentation focuses on the hagiographies produced during the early periods of the Śiva *bhakti* movement in the Kannada-speaking regions of South Asia. The presentation shows how activism against religious elitism and exclusion coexisted along with remnants of conservative ideology within the tradition. This early history helps us understand an emerging political debate within contemporary practitioners of the Vīraśaiva tradition, also known as the Liṅgāyata movement. Several factions within the tradition have asserted that their religious tradition is distinct from Hinduism and, therefore, have sought to distance themselves away from what they consider a caste/elite religion.

The second presentation transitions from thirteenth-century Karnataka to fourteenth-century Maharashtra, where one encounters the Marathi poet Chokhāmelā, who hails from an “ex-Untouchable” caste. Chokhāmelā’s poetic works challenged Brahmanical orthodoxy and exclusivity while serving as a platform to articulate the sufferings of the marginalized. The *bhakti* poetries of Chokāmelā, which are also influenced by the social message of Nāmdev, emphasize his fervent devotion to the god Vitthala of Pandharpur. In contrast to some contemporary social justice movements among the Dalits and the lower castes that reject the doctrine of karma, Chokhāmelā found spiritual solace in the doctrine. 

Moving to the southernmost parts of South Asia, the third presentation focuses on how *bhakti* poetries of Kumāran Āśān address the issues of untouchability and caste discrimination in nineteenth-century Kerala. Āśān is considered a prolific writer of Malayāḷam *bhakti* poetry, and his biography highlights how *bhakti* operates across regions. Having traveled widely and having been influenced by Rabindranath Tagore, Ramakrishna Paramhamsa, and Swami Vivekananda, Āśān brought to Malayāḷam literary influences from Bengal and Karnataka. Accordingly, this presenter acknowledges similarities between Āśān’s poetic works with those from upper castes yet argues Āśān’s remains distinct for bringing forth the voices of those on the margins of colonial rule in Kerala.

The final two presentations of the panel address subaltern *bhakti* through contemporary ethnography. The fourth presentation is of significant relevance for understanding the subaltern along the axes of gender and sexuality. Specifically, it focuses on the integration of the Indian deity Ardhanārīśvara, literally “the Lord who is half woman,” into “third gender” spaces by members of associated communities. This includes examining the deity as incorporated into the traditional Dūrgā Pujā festivities of West Bengal by gender rights activists and its veneration within a transgender religious order, the Kinnar Akhāḍā. Accordingly, the presentation will offer fresh insight into how bhakti undercuts cisgender and heteronormative dominance; *bhakti* of the deity allows the queer communities in question to navigate challenges of acceptance and upward social mobility. While scholars are familiar with iconographies, narratives, and philosophical framings of Ardhanārīśvara, the presenter provides a much-needed intervention regarding lived realities involving the figure.

With the fifth presentation, the category of the subaltern shifts towards Adivasis, indigenous tribal communities of South Asia. The presenter's intervention offers insights into the study of *bhakti* (devotion) from the viewpoint of the Adivasis, also classified as the “Scheduled Tribes.” This examination focuses specifically on the religious songs of the Bhils, who are Adivasi communities residing in the Sabarkantha district of north Gujarat. Rather than textual material as found in other *bhakti* traditions, this presentation focuses on the songs that have been orally transmitted through generations. Through the utilization of archival and ethnographic data, this paper advocates for the recognition of Adivasi tribal religions as significant sites for uncovering subaltern ways of reframing *bhakti*. Notably, the paper includes the first-ever English translations of religious songs found in Bhili, an Adivasi language spoken in the hilly borderlands of Gujarat. The author considers the category of “Adivasi *bhakti*” while problematizing the historical origins of such oral literature. 

In conclusion, the panel seeks to examine the dynamics of bhakti practices within subaltern contexts, illuminating nuanced understandings of devotion, agency, participation, transformation, and resistance as found within marginalized communities of South Asia. As such, this panel recognizes *bhakti* as a force of transformation, yet it also delineates how notions of bhakti transform within subaltern contexts.