Explorations in Chinese Christian Historiographies: Missions, Inculturations, Nationalisms

In this session, the Chinese Christianities Unit features papers that push the historiographical boundaries of our field. While rooted in examinations of historic missionary work and local inculturation, the papers in this session explore how the competition of Chinese national ideologies, often regarded in studies of China and Sinophone worlds as secular, can be genealogically and historically traced back to various Christian threads. In this way, the study of Chinese Christian histories can be seen to contribute to the examination of national ideologies in China and beyond.

Our first paper examines the early Chinese Communist Party’s (CCP) ideological evolution, highlighting its strategic appropriation and subsequent rejection of Christian elements in the pursuit of national salvation. Building on the framework of Goossaert and Palmer, it interprets the CCP’s inception as a religious endeavor, where Christianity initially served as a model for moral and social reform. Through a detailed analysis of Chen Duxiu and Yun Daiying’s transformations—from viewing Christianity as a valuable source of sacredness to denouncing it in favor of Communism’s promises of social overhaul and enhanced organizational cohesion—the study illustrates the CCP’s shift towards positioning Communism as the ultimate sacred narrative. This exploration into the complex interplay between religious faith and political ideology helps illuminate the forces shaping modern China’s religio-political landscape and the role of sacredness in its nationalist and revolutionary discourses.

Our second paper examines the term “Sino-Foreign Protestant Establishment,” defined by noted Chinese historian Daniel H. Bays in the work of Y. T. Wu, a pivotal Protestant leader in post-1949 church-state relations. Sino-Foreign Protestant Establishment is a term that is central to understanding the evolution of Christianity in early twentieth-century China. Flourishing during the Republican era and unraveling in the mid-20th century with the rise of the Chinese Communist regime, this roughly four-decade-long Establishment underwent a significant shift from collaboration to estrangement. The study argues that this transition can be seen as orchestrated in the work of Y.T. Wu through three key strategies: ideological reconstruction, institutional rebuilding, and individual decoupling, all aimed at removing foreign influences from the initial Establishment. These tactics culminated in what is termed “Cold War Christian Chineseness,” a new phase of Chinese Christian self-identity shaped by these transformative processes.

Our third paper focuses on Margaret Emma Barber (1866–1930), a British female missionary, who significantly influenced the spiritual development of Watchman Nee (1903–1972), a prominent leader of churches in China. Despite their significant impact, their mentoring relationship remains understudied in scholarly literature. This paper aims to fill this gap by examining the dynamic interaction between Barber and Nee in the 1920s, shedding light on the complex dynamics between Western missionaries and Chinese converts. Drawing on historical documents, personal writings, and contextual analysis, this paper explores Barber’s guidance and Nee’s perception of Barber’s personality and mentorship and aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the cultural and theological exchanges between Western missionaries and indigenous Chinese Christians in twentieth-century China and beyond. In this way, it enriches the narrative of Chinese Christianity by highlighting the significance of mentorship and cultural exchange in shaping its development across geographical and cultural boundaries.

Our fourth paper explores Christian Reconstructionism among the new generations of Chinese urban elite Christians. These communities have been searching for an intellectually robust political theology to guide their cultural ambition and their reformist drive. Some of their recent discourse, for example their endorsement of American Christian nationalism, their hostility toward the ordination of women, and their rejection of separation of church and state, calls into question what kind of political theology that had influenced them the most. For some influential and outspoken Chinese Christian leaders of the 21st century, the answer is clear. They adopted Christian Reconstructionism, sometimes also called theonomy, of American fundamentalists such as Rousas Rushdoony and Gary North. This paper traces the historical contingencies through which Christian Reconstruction theology made its way across the globe to China, and came to be favored by many Chinese Christians.