Mediating the Divine and the Profane: The Empowerment of the Hungry Ghost "Burning Face" in Chinese Liturgical Paintings

Introduced to China during the Tang dynasty (618-907) through the translation of esoteric Buddhist texts, the Ghost King of the Burning Face emerged as a pivotal figure in Chinese post-mortuary practices. This deity frequently appears in both Buddhist and Daoist liturgical texts, imagery, and salvation rituals from the tenth century onwards. Initially embodying the role of a delegate for the hungry ghosts, the Ghost King evolved into a mediator, bridging the divine realm, the netherworld and our world, to summon, guide, and feed the hungry ghosts afflicted with insatiable hunger, thirst, and perpetual burning.

This paper sets out to examine the extant Ghost King's depictions in Buddhist and Daoist liturgical art from the fourteenth to the nineteenth centuries. Through the analysis of significant artworks from the Qinglong, Baoning, and the White Cloud monasteries, it uncovers a progressive refinement in the deity's portrayal—from ambiguous murals depicting its dual roles of summoning and feeding to distinct representations emphasizing its various functions across rituals. This evolution peaks with some hanging scrolls made in the Qing dynasty (1644-1911), which incorporate a complex composition reflecting the cosmic triad of heaven, humanity, and the underworld, along with a blend of diverse motifs. This investigation sheds light on the changing perceptions of the Ghost King and the role of liturgical paintings in visualizing and facilitating ritual performance.

Research into Water-Land paintings has pointed out two main depictions of the Ghost King, as documented by scholars like Xiaoyun Dai, Jincheng Su, and Qin Liu: as a procession leader of the hungry ghosts, depicted in profile at the mural's edge, and as a central figure in hanging scrolls, depicted frontally and symmetrically to engage the viewer directly. Despite its key role in feeding rites, the Ghost King has been somewhat overlooked in scholarship, frequently overshadowed by other deities within the water-land ritual context and predominantly interpreted through esoteric Buddhist texts. The transition from wall paintings to hanging scrolls, noted by scholars including Shih-Shan Huang, Lennert Gesterkamp, and Stephen Teiser, marks a significant shift in liturgical art preferences, evidenced by the widespread production of scrolls in late imperial China.

My methodology involves a close examination of the iconography and thematic content of selected liturgical paintings, with a particular emphasis on the depiction of the Ghost King and its entourage. Furthermore, the paper considers the role of the artist and the liturgical context in shaping the portrayal of these themes, discussing the modular composition of the paintings and the use of conventional motifs to meet the requirements of specific ritual and patronage contexts. This exploration also delves into the intersections between religions and arts, addressing aspects such as the convergence of Buddhist and Daoist representations of the deity, and the intermediality between painting formats, including murals and hanging scrolls.

This paper contributes to the broader discourse on religious syncretism, art as a medium of religious expression, and the role of liturgical paintings in mediating theological concepts and practices. It specifically challenges the notion of Buddhist unilateral influence on Daoist art by showcasing the significant overlap and amalgamation of motifs and iconographies across Buddhist and Daoist liturgical art. Further, this paper highlights the dynamic and the ways in which these interactions are visually negotiated and reified in liturgical art. Several artistic devices, such as layered composition and the synergistic relationship between the deity, the Ghost King, and the ritualist, are adopted by professional artists. These devices help transform the religious concept and practice into compelling visual narratives. Contrary to views that relegate religious art to mere decoration or a liturgical backdrop, this research underscores the critical role of visual art in embodying religious concepts, facilitating the ritual process, and shaping the ritual space.

In conclusion, the proposed paper seeks to illuminate the rich tapestry of Chinese religious art and its capacity to articulate complex theological ideas through visual means. By exploring the Ghost King in both wall paintings and hanging scrolls, this study aims to deepen our understandings of the nuanced ways in which Chinese religious traditions have engaged with and transformed each other, fostering a unique visual and ritual language that bridges the divine and the profane.