Xitan Temple on Mt. Jizu: Shared sacred space for Naxi, Tibetan, and Chinese Buddhists

When Zhu Yuanzhang 朱元璋 (1328-1398) sent troops to Yunnan in 1381 he met resistance from Yuan loyalist and local tribes. Even the Dali Duan 段 governor wrote a letter showing reluctance to give up power. However, the Naxi Mu family was smart enough to publicly claim alliance with the Ming, which earned them a unique strategic position for centuries. One of the most powerful Naxi chieftains was Mu Zeng 木增 (1587-1646), who even gained control over some parts of Tibet. Mu Zeng’s military ambition is ironically paired with his Buddhist piety depicted in both Tibetan and Chinese sources. On Mt. Jizu, for instance, Mu Zeng supported the construction of temples, the printing of Buddhist texts, and regular Buddhist rituals. He also sponsored both Tibetan Buddhist pilgrims and Chinese literati travelers. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how Mu Zeng’s patronage of both Tibetan and Chinese Buddhism was critical in Mt. Jizu’s transformation into a sacred site, with a focus on Xitan Temple as a hub for the material, human, and ritual encounters between Naxi, Tibetan and Chinese Buddhists.

Researchers in Chinese Buddhism have displayed much interest in sacred mountains. There is at least one monograph on each of the so-called Four Great Buddhist Mountains in China, and Mt. Wutai has been the subject of several book-length studies. As scholars like Wen-shing Chou, Wei-cheng Lin, and Susan Andrews have shown, Mt. Wutai’s sacred space is distinctive because it is shared among Chinese, Tibetan, Mongol, and Manchu Buddhists, and its significance spread to Japan. Likewise, Mt. Jizu can also be regarded as a shared sacred space among Chinese, Tibetan, Naxi, and Bai Buddhists. However, it has so far received very little attention. The intricate power dynamics in Yunnan, diverse ethnic make-ups, and different Buddhist traditions both contribute to the difficulty in researching Mt. Jizu and make its Buddhist history unique. Shifting focus away from sectarian divisions, as James Robson (2009) points out, will offer us a multi-perspective of Mt. Jizu.

Sources on Mt. Jizu reveal little information about Buddhist activities before the 15th century, when it was still known as Mt. Jiuqu 九曲山, or Mt. Qingdian 青巔山. The mountain’s earliest inscription, dated to 1432, was found in a shrine for a local deity (literally “local lord”; _benzhu_ 本主) and related to a Buddhist legend popular in the Nanzhao Period. However, in subsequent texts and inscriptions the legend abruptly disappeared. Mt. Jizu started to be identified with Kukkuṭapāda, the Indian mountain where Mahākāśyapa is holding the robe of Śākyamuni waiting for the future Buddha Maitreya. Since then it gradually attracted Buddhists from all directions and became a popular pilgrimage destination. For Chinese Buddhists, the connection between Mahākāśyapa and Chan enhanced the mountain’s attraction. Tibetan Buddhists focused more on the messianic hope that Maitreya will come to liberate sentient beings in front of Huashou Gate 華首門. The mountain’s symbolic significance rendered it an ideal site for Mu Zeng to invest his wealth. By actively participating in all kinds of Buddhist activities, Mu Zeng successfully presented himself as a devout Buddhist monarch (_cakravartin_). This, to a certain extent, helped him maintain control over northwestern Yunnan, parts of Tibet, and even extend power to the Dali area. 

The two travel diaries, one by the Sixth Zhwa dmar Chos kyi dbang phyug (1584-1630), and the other by Xu Xiake 徐霞客 (1587-1646), revealed many details about Mu Zeng’s interaction with the site, albeit from different perspectives. The pilgrimage of the Sixth Zhwa dmar is told by the tenth Karmapa chos dbyings rdo rje (1606-1674) and collected in his anthology. This pilgrimage account records in detail the Buddhist activities of Mu Zeng in areas such as Lijiang and Mt. Jizu from the perspective of a Tibetan lama. Mu Zeng is portrayed as a wealthy king with a deep desire for liberation, fulfilling all the characteristics of a sacred Buddhist king. The 10th Karmapa also narrates the Sixth Zhwa dmar’s experience on Mt. Jizu, as well as how he interacted with Chinese Chan monks in Xitan Temple sponsored by Mu Zeng. In Xu Xiake’s _Yunnan Travel Diaries_ 滇遊日記, he also tells how he was honorably treated by Chan monks in Xitan Temple due to his connection with Mu Zeng, and how he participated in rituals held together by Tibetan monks (_fanseng_ 番僧) and Chan monks on Mt. Jizu.

Mu Zeng and his offspring actively constructed Xitan temple as a shared space among Chinese, Tibetan, and Naxi Buddhists. It was built by a Chinese Chan monk Benwu Shican 本無釋禪 (d.u.) in response to Mu Zeng’s invitation. Benwu carried the Chan Linji lineage, but also had deep knowledge of Huayan. However, the temple’s construction, according to its descriptions in the Republican era before its destruction in the Cultural Revolution, blended Chinese and Tibetan architectural and artistic elements. It was also a site where Tibetan monks could stay overnight and practice Buddhism together with Chan monks as attested in both the Sixth Zhwa dmar’s and Xu Xiake’s travel accounts. Unlike contested sacred spaces such as Jerusalem, Mt. Jizu is another example alongside Mt. Wutai where Buddhists from different traditions share the same space. The political ambition of Mu Zeng, to a certain degree, facilitated Buddhist exchange and transformed Mt. Jizu into a multi-ethnic and multi-lingual sacred site. Understanding Mu Zeng’s role in constructing Mt. Jizu, especially Xitan Temple, as a shared sacred space will help us better grasp how the social dynamics of Yunnan influenced its Buddhist history in the 17th century.